subtopic 3.2: human impact on Biodiversity

Rate of loss of biodiversity may vary from country to country depending on the ecosystems present, protection policies and monitoring, environmental viewpoints and stage of economic development.
In this unit we will identify the factors that lead to biodiversity loss. You will also look at case histories of biological significance that is threatened by human activities. You should know the ecological, socio- political and economic pressures that caused or are causing the degradation of the chosen area, and the consequent threat to biodiversity.
This unit is a minimum of 4 SL hours.
In this unit we will identify the factors that lead to biodiversity loss. You will also look at case histories of biological significance that is threatened by human activities. You should know the ecological, socio- political and economic pressures that caused or are causing the degradation of the chosen area, and the consequent threat to biodiversity.
This unit is a minimum of 4 SL hours.
Guiding questions:
- What causes biodiversity loss, and how are ecological and societal systems impacted?
Understanding
3.2.1. Biological diversity is being adversely affected by both direct and indirect influences.
- Define the term "natural hazard."
- List two direct threats and two indirect threats to biodiversity.
- Outline the impact of habitat fragmentation on biodiversity.
- Explain how overharvesting and poaching directly threaten biodiversity.
- Describe the effects of water pollution on freshwater biodiversity.
- List three types of pollution and provide one example of each.
- Explain how climate change exacerbates other indirect threats to biodiversity.
Biological diversity is being adversely affected by both direct and indirect influences. Direct threats include overharvesting, poaching, and the illegal pet trade. Indirect threats include habitat loss, climate change, pollution, and invasive alien species.
Natural hazards are naturally occurring physical phenomena that have the potential to cause damage to the environment, human communities, and biodiversity.
Natural hazards can directly damage habitats, disrupt ecosystems, and cause loss of biodiversity. For example, wildfires in Australia destroyed critical habitats for koalas and other species, significantly affecting their populations
Direct threats to biodiversity are activities and actions that have an immediate and observable negative impact on ecosystems and species.
- Overharvesting: The unsustainable extraction of natural resources, such as overfishing, logging, and hunting, leads to the depletion of species and disruption of ecosystems.
- Example: Overfishing of Atlantic cod has led to the collapse of populations, impacting marine ecosystems.
- Poaching: Illegal hunting of wildlife for commercial purposes, often targeting endangered species.
- Example: Poaching of African elephants for ivory has drastically reduced their population.
- Illegal Pet Trade: Capturing and selling wild animals as pets can deplete local populations and introduce species into non-native environments, creating further ecological imbalances.
- Example: The illegal trade of exotic birds, such as parrots, threatens wild populations and biodiversity.
- Deforestation: The large-scale clearing of forests for agriculture, urban development, or logging, results in habitat destruction and species displacement.
- Example: Deforestation in the Amazon is causing habitat loss for countless species, contributing to a reduction in global biodiversity.
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Indirect threats are more diffuse in their impact but can be just as devastating as direct threats. These include changes to habitats, pollution, climate change, and the introduction of invasive species.
Habitat Loss
Habitat loss is one of the primary drivers of biodiversity decline. It can occur through:
Pollution
Pollution introduces harmful substances into the environment, which can damage ecosystems and biodiversity. Key types of pollution include:
Soil Pollution:
Contaminants like heavy metals and chemicals from industrial waste affect the fertility of soils and the organisms that rely on it.
Light Pollution:
Artificial light disrupts the natural behavior of species, particularly nocturnal animals and migratory birds.
Thermal Pollution:
The release of heat, particularly from industrial processes, into natural water bodies alters ecosystems.
Habitat Loss
Habitat loss is one of the primary drivers of biodiversity decline. It can occur through:
- Habitat Destruction: Complete removal of ecosystems (e.g., deforestation for agriculture).
- Example: Conversion of forests to farmland in Indonesia for palm oil plantations is leading to the destruction of orangutan habitats.
- Habitat Degradation: Reduction in habitat quality that no longer supports the original species.
- Example: Industrial pollution degrading freshwater habitats, making them uninhabitable for aquatic life.
- Habitat Fragmentation: The breaking up of continuous habitats into smaller, isolated patches.
- Example: The fragmentation of the Brazilian Amazon due to road construction and logging is isolating species and reducing genetic diversity.
Pollution
Pollution introduces harmful substances into the environment, which can damage ecosystems and biodiversity. Key types of pollution include:
- Air Pollution: Emissions from vehicles and industry contribute to climate change and acid rain, which can harm forests and aquatic ecosystems.
- Example: Acid rain in Europe has severely damaged forest ecosystems.
- Water Pollution: Contaminants like industrial waste, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), and plastic waste pollute freshwater and marine ecosystems.
- Example: Plastic pollution in the Pacific Ocean has formed the "Great Pacific Garbage Patch," harming marine life.
Soil Pollution:
Contaminants like heavy metals and chemicals from industrial waste affect the fertility of soils and the organisms that rely on it.
- Example: Soil contamination from mining activities reduces the productivity of the land and disrupts local biodiversity.
Light Pollution:
Artificial light disrupts the natural behavior of species, particularly nocturnal animals and migratory birds.
- Example: Bright city lights interfere with the migratory paths of birds, leading to collisions and disorientation.
- Noise Pollution: Excessive noise from urbanization and industrial activities affects communication, reproduction, and navigation in species.
- Example: Underwater noise from ships disrupts communication and navigation for marine mammals like whales.
Thermal Pollution:
The release of heat, particularly from industrial processes, into natural water bodies alters ecosystems.
- Example: Power plants discharging hot water into rivers can reduce dissolved oxygen levels, affecting aquatic life.
Climate Change and its Impact on Biodiversity
Climate change is exacerbating all other threats to biodiversity by altering ecosystems, shifting species' geographic ranges, and changing the timing of natural events such as breeding or flowering. It reduces the resilience of ecosystems, making them more vulnerable to other threats such as invasive species and pollution.
Climate change is exacerbating all other threats to biodiversity by altering ecosystems, shifting species' geographic ranges, and changing the timing of natural events such as breeding or flowering. It reduces the resilience of ecosystems, making them more vulnerable to other threats such as invasive species and pollution.
- Example: The bleaching of coral reefs due to ocean temperature rises caused by global climate change. This reduces biodiversity as reefs serve as critical habitats for marine life.
- Impact: Loss of biodiversity weakens ecosystem services, such as water purification, pollination, and climate regulation, directly impacting human communities.
Activity: Research a local ecosystem. Identify the direct and indirect threats to biodiversity in this ecosystem. Explain how these are affecting the biodiversity of the ecosystem.
3.2.2 Most ecosystems are subject to multiple human impacts.
- Define the term "ecosystem resilience."
- List two human activities that reduce ecosystem resilience.
- Outline how climate change can interact with other threats to biodiversity.
- Explain why ecosystems are more vulnerable to invasive species when impacted by climate change.
- Describe how human impacts can be studied using a transect in an ecosystem.
Human impacts on ecosystems are often not isolated. Multiple stressors interact to produce compounded effects that are more severe than individual threats. When ecosystems are already weakened by one factor, such as climate change or pollution, they become more vulnerable to additional stressors, such as invasive species, habitat fragmentation, or overexploitation.
Climate Change
Climate change disrupts ecosystems by altering temperatures, precipitation, and sea levels, impacting species' migration, breeding, and food availability.
Habitat Loss and Fragmentation
Habitat loss and fragmentation occur when large habitats are divided into smaller, isolated patches due to urbanization and agriculture, reducing species' genetic diversity and increasing their extinction risk.
Climate change disrupts ecosystems by altering temperatures, precipitation, and sea levels, impacting species' migration, breeding, and food availability.
- Example: In the Arctic, rising temperatures reduce sea ice, affecting polar bears' ability to hunt. This also increases exposure to pollutants and introduces invasive species like the snow crab, which competes for resources.
- Compounding Effect: Climate change weakens ecosystems, making them more vulnerable to other threats like pollution and habitat loss. For example, coral reefs, weakened by warming oceans, are more susceptible to bleaching and invasive species.
Habitat Loss and Fragmentation
Habitat loss and fragmentation occur when large habitats are divided into smaller, isolated patches due to urbanization and agriculture, reducing species' genetic diversity and increasing their extinction risk.
Invasive Alien Species
Invasive species, introduced through human activities like trade and travel, outcompete native species, disrupt ecosystems, and introduce new diseases.
Invasive species, introduced through human activities like trade and travel, outcompete native species, disrupt ecosystems, and introduce new diseases.
- Example: The zebra mussel, introduced into the Great Lakes, has outcompeted native mussels, altered nutrient cycling, and affected water quality and fish populations.
- Compounding Effect: Invasive species often thrive in ecosystems weakened by stressors like habitat degradation or climate change. For example, kudzu, an invasive plant in the southeastern U.S., grows faster in warmer conditions, outcompeting native species struggling to adapt to rising temperatures.
Application of skills: Investigate the impact of human activity on biodiversity in an ecosystem by studying change in species diversity along a transect laid perpendicular to a site of human interference or by randomly sampling within transects before and after the human activity. (Field study)
3.2.3 Invasive alien species can reduce local biodiversity by competing for limited resources, predation and introduction of diseases or parasites.
- Define the term "invasive species."
- List two ways invasive species can be introduced to an ecosystem.
- Outline one method used to control invasive species.
- Explain how an invasive species can lead to the decline of native species.
- Describe one example of an invasive species and its impact on an ecosystem
Invasive species are organisms that are introduced, either intentionally or accidentally, into an ecosystem where they are not native. Once established, these species can cause severe harm to the environment, the economy, and even human health. Their impacts are magnified in ecosystems that are already weakened by other stressors, such as habitat loss or climate change.
Competition for Resources
Invasive species often outcompete native species for essential resources like food, water, and space, especially when they lack natural predators.
Predation on Native Species
Invasive species can prey on native species that have not evolved defenses, leading to severe population declines or extinctions.
Disease Introduction
Invasive species can introduce pathogens or parasites that native species are not immune to, causing disease outbreaks and population declines.
Habitat Alteration
Invasive species can alter habitats by changing the physical environment or the species composition within ecosystems.
Hybridization
Invasive species can interbreed with native species, leading to hybridization and the loss of genetic purity, potentially resulting in the decline of unique species.
Invasive species often outcompete native species for essential resources like food, water, and space, especially when they lack natural predators.
- Example: The grey squirrel, introduced to the UK from North America, competes with the native red squirrel for food and habitat, leading to a decline in red squirrel populations.
Predation on Native Species
Invasive species can prey on native species that have not evolved defenses, leading to severe population declines or extinctions.
- Example: The brown tree snake, introduced to Guam, caused the extinction of several bird species by preying on their eggs, with the birds having no natural defenses against the snake.
Disease Introduction
Invasive species can introduce pathogens or parasites that native species are not immune to, causing disease outbreaks and population declines.
- Example: The American crayfish brought a fungal disease to Europe that devastated native European crayfish populations, which had no resistance to the pathogen.
Habitat Alteration
Invasive species can alter habitats by changing the physical environment or the species composition within ecosystems.
- Example: Kudzu, a vine introduced to the southeastern U.S., overwhelms native vegetation by smothering trees and plants, leading to habitat loss for native species.
Hybridization
Invasive species can interbreed with native species, leading to hybridization and the loss of genetic purity, potentially resulting in the decline of unique species.
- Example: The mallard duck, introduced in many regions, hybridizes with native duck species, causing genetic dilution and reducing the distinctiveness of native species.
Pathways of Introduction
Invasive species can be introduced into new ecosystems through various human activities, often unintentionally:
Trade and Transport:
Agriculture and Horticulture
Pet and Wildlife Trade:
Tourism and Recreation:
Invasive species can be introduced into new ecosystems through various human activities, often unintentionally:
Trade and Transport:
- Global trade, especially shipping, is a major pathway for the introduction of invasive species. Invasive organisms may be transported in ballast water, on ships' hulls, or as stowaways in cargo.
- Example: The zebra mussel, native to Eastern Europe, was introduced to North America in the ballast water of ships. It has since spread throughout the Great Lakes and other freshwater systems, causing extensive ecological and economic damage.
Agriculture and Horticulture
- Some invasive species are introduced intentionally for agricultural, horticultural, or landscaping purposes, but later escape into the wild.
- Example: The cane toad was introduced to Australia to control pests in sugarcane fields but became a highly destructive invasive species, preying on native wildlife and spreading rapidly.
Pet and Wildlife Trade:
- Exotic pets, when released into the wild, can become invasive if they thrive in their new environment.
- Example: The Burmese python, released into the wild by pet owners in Florida, has established a breeding population in the Everglades, where it preys on native wildlife and disrupts the ecosystem.
Tourism and Recreation:
- Human activities such as tourism and recreation can also spread invasive species, often through the unintentional transport of seeds, spores, or small organisms on equipment, vehicles, or clothing.
- Example: Hitchhiker plants and seeds transported by tourists' boots and camping gear have spread invasive species in sensitive areas like national parks.
Economic and Environmental Consequences
Invasive species threaten biodiversity and have significant economic, environmental, and human health impacts.
Invasive species threaten biodiversity and have significant economic, environmental, and human health impacts.
- Economic Impact: Invasive species can damage agriculture, forestry, fisheries, and water systems, leading to costly losses.
- Example: Zebra mussels clog water intake pipes, costing industries millions in maintenance and control efforts.
- Environmental Impact: Invasive species destabilize ecosystems by displacing native species, altering food webs, and disrupting ecological processes, reducing essential ecosystem services like water purification and pollination.
- Human Health Impact: Some invasive species introduce diseases or allergens that directly affect human health.
- Example: Invasive mosquitoes, such as Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus, spread diseases like dengue fever and Zika virus.
Activity: Consider local examples of alien species that have become invasive and the management strategy that has been used to reduce their impact
3.2.4 The global conservation status of species is assessed by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and is published as the IUCN Red List. Status is based on number of individuals, rate of increase or decrease of the population, breeding potential, geographic range and known threats.
- Define the term "IUCN Red List.
- List three factors considered when assessing the conservation status of a species.
- Outline how the IUCN Red List can be used to prioritize conservation efforts.
- Explain why the IUCN Red List is important for global biodiversity conservation.

Total World Biodiversity
Biodiversity refers to the variety of life on Earth, encompassing all species of plants, animals, fungi, and microorganisms, as well as the ecosystems they form. Estimating the total number of species on Earth is challenging, as many species, particularly invertebrates and microorganisms, have yet to be discovered or described.
Current Estimates:
Despite the rich biodiversity on Earth, species are being lost at an alarming rate due to habitat destruction, climate change, pollution, overexploitation, and the spread of invasive species. This makes the identification and cataloging of species more urgent for conservation efforts.
Biodiversity refers to the variety of life on Earth, encompassing all species of plants, animals, fungi, and microorganisms, as well as the ecosystems they form. Estimating the total number of species on Earth is challenging, as many species, particularly invertebrates and microorganisms, have yet to be discovered or described.
Current Estimates:
- Scientists estimate that there are approximately 8.7 million species on Earth, with around 80% still undiscovered and unnamed. This includes terrestrial, marine, and freshwater species.
- The majority of known species are found in biodiversity-rich areas such as tropical rainforests and coral reefs. These regions harbor a vast array of species, many of which are highly specialized and found nowhere else in the world.
Despite the rich biodiversity on Earth, species are being lost at an alarming rate due to habitat destruction, climate change, pollution, overexploitation, and the spread of invasive species. This makes the identification and cataloging of species more urgent for conservation efforts.
World Biodiversity – Species Groups, Species Found, and Estimated Total Species
The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List is often referred to as a "barometer of life," providing critical insights into the health of the world’s biodiversity. It assesses the risk of extinction for species based on rigorous scientific criteria and data. The Red List plays an essential role in global conservation by:
- Raising Awareness: The Red List highlights species at risk of extinction, drawing public and governmental attention to critical conservation issues.
- Guiding Conservation Action: It helps prioritize species for conservation by providing a scientifically grounded measure of urgency. Governments, NGOs, and conservationists use it to direct resources where they are needed most.
- Informing Policy: The Red List is used to inform national and international biodiversity strategies, such as the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and CITES, helping shape laws and regulations aimed at protecting species.
- Tracking Progress: The Red List also serves as a tool for measuring progress toward global biodiversity goals, such as the Aichi Biodiversity Targets and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), by tracking changes in species' conservation status over time.

Red List Categories of Conservation Status
The IUCN Red List categorizes species into different levels of conservation concern based on several factors, including population size, rate of decline, geographic range, and threats. The categories are:
Least Concern (LC):
Near Threatened (NT):
Vulnerable (VU):
Endangered (EN):
Extinct in the Wild (EW):
Extinct (EX):
The IUCN Red List categorizes species into different levels of conservation concern based on several factors, including population size, rate of decline, geographic range, and threats. The categories are:
Least Concern (LC):
- Species that are widespread and abundant, facing no immediate risk of extinction.
- Example: The American bison, once heavily hunted, now thrives in protected areas and is listed as Least Concern.
Near Threatened (NT):
- Species that are close to qualifying for a threatened category in the near future.
- Example: The jaguar is listed as Near Threatened due to habitat loss and poaching but does not yet meet the threshold for a higher risk category.
Vulnerable (VU):
- Species facing a high risk of extinction in the wild, often due to significant population decline or habitat loss.
- Example: The African elephant is classified as Vulnerable, with populations declining due to poaching and habitat destruction.
Endangered (EN):
- Species facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild, with significant reductions in population size and habitat availability.
- Example: The tiger is Endangered, with populations fragmented and declining across its range.
- Critically Endangered (CR): Species facing an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild. Immediate conservation action is required to prevent extinction.
- Example: The vaquita, a small porpoise in the Gulf of California, is Critically Endangered with fewer than 10 individuals remaining due to bycatch in illegal gillnet fishing.
Extinct in the Wild (EW):
- Species known only to survive in captivity or as a naturalized population outside their historic range.
- Example: The Wyoming toad is extinct in the wild and survives only in captive breeding programs.
Extinct (EX):
- Species for which there is no reasonable doubt that the last individual has died.
- Example: The passenger pigeon, once abundant in North America, went extinct in the early 20th century due to overhunting and habitat destruction.
Criteria for Assessing Conservation Status
The Red List assigns species to categories based on a set of quantitative criteria. These criteria allow for a rigorous and standardized assessment of a species' risk of extinction:
Population Size:
Rate of Population Decline:
Geographic Range:
Fragmentation of Habitat:
Known Threats:
The Red List assigns species to categories based on a set of quantitative criteria. These criteria allow for a rigorous and standardized assessment of a species' risk of extinction:
Population Size:
- Small population sizes are inherently more vulnerable to extinction due to genetic inbreeding, reduced reproductive success, and susceptibility to environmental fluctuations.
- Example: The critically endangered Amur leopard has fewer than 100 individuals in the wild, making it highly vulnerable.
Rate of Population Decline:
- The speed at which a species’ population is declining can indicate an imminent risk of extinction.
- Example: The Javan rhinoceros has experienced severe population declines due to poaching for its horn, leading to its Critically Endangered status.
Geographic Range:
- Species with restricted geographic ranges are more vulnerable to extinction due to habitat loss or localized threats.
- Example: The golden poison frog, found only in small areas of Colombia, is listed as Endangered because its restricted range makes it vulnerable to deforestation and climate change.
Fragmentation of Habitat:
- Species in fragmented habitats are at a greater risk of extinction due to the isolation of populations, which limits genetic exchange and reduces their ability to adapt to changing conditions.
- Example: Habitat fragmentation has severely affected the Bornean orangutan, classified as Critically Endangered.
Known Threats:
- Direct threats such as poaching, illegal wildlife trade, pollution, climate change, and invasive species significantly increase the likelihood of a species becoming extinct.
- Example: The Hawaiian monk seal is Critically Endangered, largely due to habitat degradation and entanglement in marine debris.
The following factors make a species prone to extinction:
- Narrow geographical range: species lives only in one place, if it is degraded or destroyed their habitat will be affected or gone.
- Small population size or declining numbers: smaller populations have smaller genetic diversity and are less resilient (large predators and extreme specialists e.g. snow leopard and tiger).
- Low population densities and large territories: if species requires large area to hunt and only meets others to breed then habitat fragmentation and degradation will greatly affect it.
- Few populations of the species: more populations of a species (in different locations) the better the chances of survival.
- Large Bodied species: as energy decreases up the food chain, the higher the tropic level the rarer the species (e.g. top predators). The large bodied top predators require larger ranges, have lower population densities, need a lot of food, and are often hunted for sport or because of the threat to humans (lion, tiger, etc…)
- Low reproductive potential: species which reproduce slowly and infrequently (e.g. whales, and larger seabirds e.g. albatrosses which only produce one egg per pair per year).
- Seasonal migrants: long migration routes (e.g. swallows, southern Africa to Europe), hazardous journeys, and they need both habitats. If one habitat is destroyed or degraded and then there is no food for them. Barriers on their journeys (e.g. salmon trying swim upstream).
- Poor dispersers: species that can not move easily to new habitats are vulnerable. For example plants rely on seed dispersal to move which can take a long time and climate change can cause the plant to die before it can move. Flightless birds of New Zealand are almost extinct because they can not escape hunters or fly to new islands.
- Specialized feeders or niche requirements: for example giant pandas, which eat mostly bamboo and koalas, which eat only eucalyptus leaves, can only survive on one food resource.
- Hunted for food or sport: over-hunting or over-harvesting can eradicate species quickly, especially if that species lives in large groups (e.g. herds of bison in North America)
3.2.5 Assigning a global conservation status publicizes the vulnerability of species and allows governments, non-governmental agencies and individual citizens to select appropriate conservation priorities and management strategies.
- Define the term "conservation status."
- List two factors used to determine the IUCN conservation status of a species.
- Outline how governments prioritize conservation efforts based on national interests.
- Explain why NGOs often focus on flagship species to promote conservation.
- Describe one example of how assigning a global conservation status has led to increased conservation efforts for a species.
- Explain how the perspectives of individuals can contribute to global conservation efforts.
Understanding and cataloging biodiversity is crucial for conservation. Documenting species allows scientists to assess their conservation status, understand their ecological roles, and develop strategies to protect them. The large percentage of undiscovered species, particularly in invertebrates, fungi, and microorganisms, suggests that there may still be many unknown species at risk of extinction before they are even described.
Publicizing Vulnerability:
Prioritizing Conservation Efforts:
Guiding Resource Allocation:
- Assigning a conservation status raises awareness about species at risk, mobilizing support from governments, NGOs, and individuals for conservation actions.
- Example: The critically endangered status of the northern white rhinoceros drew global attention, generating funding for anti-poaching efforts and habitat protection.
Prioritizing Conservation Efforts:
- The IUCN Red List helps prioritize species for protection based on threat levels, ensuring that endangered species receive more attention and resources.
- Example: The Amur leopard, classified as critically endangered, has become a priority for conservation, leading to targeted efforts like anti-poaching measures and habitat protection.
Guiding Resource Allocation:
- Conservation status guides how limited resources are allocated, ensuring species with more urgent needs receive timely intervention.
- Example: The African wild dog, listed as endangered, has seen resources focused on habitat protection and reducing human-wildlife conflict.
Perspectives on Conservation Prioritization
Different stakeholders—governments, NGOs, and individuals—approach conservation with varying priorities based on their goals, resources, and strategic focus.
Different stakeholders—governments, NGOs, and individuals—approach conservation with varying priorities based on their goals, resources, and strategic focus.
- Government Perspectives: Governments often prioritize species that impact national interests, ecosystem services, or economic development.
- National Interests: Species with cultural or tourism value, like elephants in Kenya or pandas in China, are prioritized.
- Economic Impact: Species crucial to economic stability, such as fish stocks, may be protected for food security and livelihoods.
- Policy and Legal Frameworks: Governments implement laws like the U.S. Endangered Species Act and participate in international agreements like CITES to guide conservation.
- Example: The U.S. Endangered Species Act mandates recovery plans for threatened species and designates critical habitats.
- NGO Perspectives: NGOs often focus on global or regional priorities, targeting critically endangered or flagship species to raise awareness.
- Flagship Species: Charismatic species (e.g., tigers, pandas) are chosen to attract public support and protect broader ecosystems.
- Biodiversity Hotspots: NGOs focus on protecting species-rich areas under significant threat to conserve multiple species.
- Community Involvement: Many NGOs engage local communities in conservation efforts to ensure sustainable outcomes.
- Example: WWF works globally to protect species like polar bears and ecosystems like the Amazon Rainforest, while advocating for international policy changes.
- Individual Perspectives: Individuals contribute to conservation through advocacy, donations, and personal choices.
- Advocacy and Fundraising: Individuals support NGOs through donations, campaigns, and lobbying for conservation laws.
- Personal Choices: Consumers can promote conservation by making sustainable purchasing decisions, such as avoiding products from endangered species.
- Citizen Science: Individuals contribute data to conservation projects by monitoring species or assisting in reforestation.
- Example: Public support for anti-whaling campaigns helped recover humpback whale populations by reducing demand for whale products.
Activity: Investigate a species (e.g., Amur leopard) whose conservation status has improved due to targeted conservation efforts.
3.2.6 Investigate three different named species: a species that has become extinct due to human activity; a species that is critically endangered; and a species whose conservation status has been improved by intervention.
- Define the term "critically endangered."
- List one species that has become extinct due to human activity.
- Outline the role of captive breeding in species conservation.
- Explain how human intervention has improved the conservation status of the gray wolf.
- Describe one species that has improved in conservation status due to targeted conservation efforts
Investigate species that have become extinct, critically endangered, or improved in conservation status due to human intervention.

You will need to know the ecological, sociopolitical and economic pressures that caused or are causing the degradation of the chosen area, and the consequent threat to biodiversity.
Include all of the following in your case history
Include all of the following in your case history
- Name and description of the species
- Its ecological role
- Pressures contributing to its IUCN threatened status
- Factors related to its
- If extinct – the consequences of its disappearance
- If threatened or recovering – an evaluation of the methods applied to combat its loss
3.2.7 The tragedy of the commons describes possible outcomes of the shared unrestricted use of a resource, with implications for sustainability and the impacts on biodiversity.
- Define the term "tragedy of the commons."
- List two examples of the tragedy of the commons.
- Outline one solution to manage shared resources and avoid the tragedy of the commons.
- Explain how overfishing in international waters illustrates the tragedy of the commons.
- Describe one example of how a shared resource has been overexploited, leading to biodiversity loss
The "Tragedy of the Commons" refers to a situation in which individuals, acting in their own self-interest, overuse and deplete shared resources, leading to the long-term detriment of the entire group. The concept highlights the challenges of managing resources that are accessible to all but owned by none, such as oceans, forests, and the atmosphere.
The term was popularized by ecologist Garrett Hardin in 1968, but the idea has been a fundamental issue in economics and ecology for centuries. It demonstrates the need for cooperation, regulation, and sustainable management to prevent the degradation of commonly held resources.
The term was popularized by ecologist Garrett Hardin in 1968, but the idea has been a fundamental issue in economics and ecology for centuries. It demonstrates the need for cooperation, regulation, and sustainable management to prevent the degradation of commonly held resources.
Activity: Research two examples where a resource is overharvested (for example, fish stocks on the Grand
Banks) or where an environment is contaminated (for example plastic pollution in ocean gyres).
Banks) or where an environment is contaminated (for example plastic pollution in ocean gyres).
hl only
This unit is a minimum of 4 HL hours
3.2.8 Biodiversity hotspots are under threat from habitat destruction, which could lead to a significant loss of biological diversity, especially in tropical biomes.
- Define the term "biodiversity hotspot.
- List two criteria that qualify a region as a biodiversity hotspot
- Outline the importance of prioritizing biodiversity hotspots for conservation.
- Explain why biodiversity hotspots are considered conservation priorities.
- Describe one example of a biodiversity hotspot and the threats it faces.
Biodiversity hotspots are regions that are rich in species diversity, particularly endemic species, but are under severe threat from human activities. These areas are considered global conservation priorities due to their unique ecological significance and the high level of threat they face.
To be classified as a biodiversity hotspot, a region must meet two specific criteria:
Currently, there are 36 recognized biodiversity hotspots, covering about 2.3% of the Earth's land surface, yet they contain more than 50% of the world’s endemic plant species and at least 42% of all terrestrial vertebrate species.
- High Species Endemism: The area must contain at least 1,500 species of vascular plants that are endemic, meaning these species are found nowhere else on Earth. Endemism is particularly high in isolated ecosystems, such as islands and mountain ranges, where species have evolved in isolation over long periods.
- Significant Habitat Loss: The region must have lost at least 70% of its original habitat due to human activities. This criterion emphasizes the urgency of conservation efforts because these ecosystems are not only rich in biodiversity but are also highly threatened.
Currently, there are 36 recognized biodiversity hotspots, covering about 2.3% of the Earth's land surface, yet they contain more than 50% of the world’s endemic plant species and at least 42% of all terrestrial vertebrate species.
Biodiversity hotspots are of critical importance for global conservation for several reasons:
- High Levels of Biodiversity: Hotspots are home to a significant percentage of the world’s species, despite covering only about 2.3% of the Earth's land surface. They are particularly rich in endemic species, meaning that the loss of a hotspot can result in the extinction of species that exist nowhere else.
- Key Ecosystem Services: These regions provide essential ecosystem services, including carbon sequestration, water purification, climate regulation, and pollination, which are vital to both local communities and the global environment.
- Global Priorities for Conservation: Biodiversity hotspots are considered top conservation priorities because they represent areas where immediate action can have the most significant impact on preserving global biodiversity.
Ecological Significance of Biodiversity Hotspots
Biodiversity hotspots are vital for maintaining the planet’s ecological balance, playing key roles in local ecosystems and global environmental processes.
Biodiversity hotspots are vital for maintaining the planet’s ecological balance, playing key roles in local ecosystems and global environmental processes.
- Preservation of Species: Hotspots harbor a significant portion of the Earth's species, many of which are endemic. Losing a hotspot could lead to the extinction of numerous species, including those not yet discovered.
- Example: Madagascar is home to over 100 species of lemurs, 90% of which are found nowhere else in the world.
- Ecosystem Services: Hotspots provide essential ecosystem services such as climate regulation, water purification, and supporting agricultural biodiversity.
- Example: The Amazon Rainforest regulates global carbon cycles by sequestering large amounts of carbon dioxide, and deforestation exacerbates climate change.
- Genetic Diversity: Hotspots serve as reservoirs of genetic diversity, crucial for species’ adaptability and survival, with applications in agriculture, medicine, and biotechnology.
- Example: The Western Ghats of India is known for its rich diversity of plants, some of which have contributed to medicinal discoveries.
- Cultural and Economic Value: Many hotspots are culturally significant to indigenous communities and contribute to local economies through ecotourism, creating incentives for conservation.
- Example: The Monteverde Cloud Forest in Costa Rica is a biodiversity hotspot and ecotourism destination, promoting both local economic support and conservation efforts.
Human Activities Threatening Biodiversity Hotspots
Biodiversity hotspots face escalating threats from human activities. The most significant include:
Biodiversity hotspots face escalating threats from human activities. The most significant include:
- Deforestation and Agricultural Expansion:
The conversion of forests into agricultural land is a major threat in developing countries. Rapid agricultural expansion for food and biofuel production depletes biodiversity.- Example: In Southeast Asia, large-scale deforestation for palm oil plantations in biodiversity-rich areas like Sundaland threatens species such as the orangutan and Sumatran tiger.
- Climate Change:
Rising global temperatures and shifting weather patterns are altering habitats faster than species can adapt, compounding other threats like habitat loss and invasive species.- Example: In the Coral Triangle, ocean warming and acidification are causing widespread coral bleaching, endangering marine biodiversity and disrupting local livelihoods.
- Habitat Fragmentation:
Fragmentation occurs when continuous habitats are divided by human activities such as road construction and logging. Isolated species struggle to find food, migrate, and reproduce, increasing extinction risks.- Example: The Atlantic Forest in Brazil is heavily fragmented, isolating species like the golden lion tamarin and reducing their genetic diversity.
- Overexploitation of Resources:
Species in hotspots are overexploited for food, medicine, or the illegal wildlife trade. Overharvesting of timber, fish, and wild animals depletes populations rapidly.- Example: Madagascar's forests are exploited for hardwoods, and lemurs are threatened by illegal bushmeat hunting and the pet trade.
- Pollution:
Pollution from agriculture, mining, and industry contaminates ecosystems, reducing biodiversity. In aquatic ecosystems, pollution leads to eutrophication and dead zones.- Example: In the Western Ghats, mining causes water pollution, soil erosion, and habitat degradation, threatening freshwater species.
Activity: Research and specific hotspot.
- Choose a well-known biodiversity hotspot
- Use resources such as the IUCN Red List, Conservation International, or World Wildlife Fund to gather information on the biodiversity hotspot
- Consider:
- Describe the geographical location of the hotspot and the types of habitats found there (e.g., tropical rainforest, coral reefs, montane forests, etc.).
- Research the species found in the hotspot, with a focus on:
- Endemic species (species found only in that region).
- Endangered or critically endangered species.
- Keystone species (species that have a significant impact on their ecosystem).
- Ecosystem services provided by the biodiversity of the region (e.g., water regulation, carbon storage, pollination).
- Identify the Threats to the Hotspot:
- Research the major threats facing the biodiversity in the hotspot. Examples include:
- Deforestation: Logging, agricultural expansion, and illegal land clearing.
- Climate Change: Rising temperatures, shifting weather patterns, and sea-level rise.
- Pollution: Agricultural runoff, plastic pollution, mining waste, or chemical pollutants.
- Habitat Fragmentation: Road construction, urbanization, and land-use changes that divide habitats.
- Invasive Species: Introduction of non-native species that outcompete or prey on native species.
- Overexploitation: Overfishing, poaching, or unsustainable harvesting of resources.
- Research the major threats facing the biodiversity in the hotspot. Examples include:
- Explore Current Conservation Efforts:
- Research ongoing conservation programs in the hotspot, such as:
- Identify if the region has any designated protected areas and their effectiveness.
- Look into local initiatives where indigenous or local communities are involved in protecting the hotspot.
- Investigate the role of international organizations (e.g., WWF, IUCN) and local governments in conservation.
- Research ongoing conservation programs in the hotspot, such as:
- Potential Solutions:
- After conducting research, brainstorm potential solutions to mitigate the threats facing the biodiversity hotspot. Consider the following strategies:
- Expanding protected areas, stricter enforcement of anti-poaching laws, or improving land-use regulations.
- Promoting sustainable agriculture, ecotourism, or reforestation projects that benefit both local communities and biodiversity.
- Supporting global and local initiatives to reduce carbon emissions, enhance habitat connectivity, and protect ecosystems from the impacts of climate change.
- Involving indigenous or local communities in conservation decision-making and providing economic incentives for conservation efforts.
- Implementing control programs to reduce the impact of invasive species on native biodiversity.
- After conducting research, brainstorm potential solutions to mitigate the threats facing the biodiversity hotspot. Consider the following strategies:
3.2.9 Key areas that should be prioritized for biodiversity conservation have been identified on the basis of the international importance of their species and habitats.
- Define the term "Key Biodiversity Area."
- List two criteria used to designate a site as a Key Biodiversity Area.
- Outline the importance of prioritizing KBAs in global conservation efforts.
- Describe two examples of Key Biodiversity Areas and explain their importance for global biodiversity.
- Explain why the conservation of Key Biodiversity Areas is critical for the survival of endangered species.
Key Biodiversity Areas (KBAs) are designated based on rigorous criteria, including the presence of globally threatened species, unique ecosystems, and areas that provide crucial ecosystem services. Protecting KBAs is critical for preventing biodiversity loss and mitigating the impacts of habitat destruction and climate change.
Why KBAs Are Critical for Global Biodiversity:
- Support for Endangered Species: KBAs are home to species listed as Vulnerable, Endangered, or Critically Endangered on the IUCN Red List. These species may have restricted ranges, making the conservation of their habitats essential for their survival.
- Unique Ecosystems: KBAs often harbor ecosystems that are globally unique or irreplaceable. The loss of these areas could lead to the collapse of entire ecosystems, affecting not only the species within them but also the ecological services they provide.
- Global Ecological Contributions: Many KBAs play an essential role in regulating the climate, sequestering carbon, purifying water, and maintaining soil health. Their conservation is vital for human well-being and for reducing the effects of global environmental changes.
Importance of Prioritizing KBAs for Conservation
International Collaboration:
- The protection of KBAs is a global priority because these areas are often under severe pressure from human activities. If left unprotected, the ecosystems and species within KBAs may collapse, leading to the irreversible loss of biodiversity. Conserving KBAs can also have a positive impact on global efforts to mitigate climate change, preserve ecosystem services, and ensure sustainable development.
International Collaboration:
- Efforts such as the Key Biodiversity Areas Partnership, led by organizations like BirdLife International, Conservation International, and the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), aim to protect these crucial areas through international collaboration, financial support, and the creation of protected areas.
Activity: Identify and research Key Biodiversity Areas (KBAs) in your region or country. Create a case study on why this area is important for global biodiversity and suggest strategies for its conservation
- Select a Key Biodiversity Area from your region or country. You may use resources such as the IUCN website, local conservation agencies, or government environmental departments to identify a KBA.
- Consider:
- Provide a detailed description of the location, climate, and ecosystems present in the KBA. Highlight why this area is crucial for global biodiversity.
- Discuss the biodiversity of the area, focusing on endemic species (species found only in that region), endangered species, and key ecological functions (such as pollination or carbon sequestration).
- Explain the ecosystem services provided by the KBA, such as water purification, carbon storage, or supporting agriculture. Include the significance of these services to local and global communities.
- Importance for Global Biodiversity:
- Explain why this KBA is considered globally important for biodiversity. Is it a biodiversity hotspot with high species endemism? Does it support migratory species or species critical for maintaining ecological balance?
- Discuss why it is essential to conserve this KBA, particularly in the context of global biodiversity loss and climate change. Mention how protecting this KBA helps meet international conservation goals (e.g., the Convention on Biological Diversity or the Kunming-Montreal biodiversity goals).
- Threats to the KBA:
- Identify the key threats to biodiversity in this KBA. Consider factors such as:
- Deforestation, agriculture, and urban development.
- Climate change impacts.
- Invasive species.
- Illegal logging, poaching, or unsustainable tourism.
- Provide specific examples of how these threats are affecting local species and ecosystems.
- Identify the key threats to biodiversity in this KBA. Consider factors such as:
- Conservation Strategies:
- Outline any ongoing conservation efforts aimed at protecting the KBA. This might include:
- Protected area status or conservation policies.
- Community-based conservation initiatives.
- International partnerships or funding programs.
- Suggest additional strategies for conserving the KBA. These could include:
- Expanding protected areas.
- Promoting ecotourism or sustainable development initiatives.
- Engaging local communities in conservation efforts.
- Strengthening legal protections or international cooperation.
- Outline any ongoing conservation efforts aimed at protecting the KBA. This might include:
Activity: Research and create a case study on a KBA in your region or country. Why is this area important for global biodiversity? What threats does it face?
3.2.10 In KBAs, there is conflict between exploitation, sustainable development and conservation.
- Define the term "Key Biodiversity Area."
- Outline the conflict between exploitation, sustainable development, and conservation in Key Biodiversity Areas.
- Explain why conflicts arise between economic exploitation and conservation in Key Biodiversity Areas, using examples.
- Describe one example of conflict over the use of a Key Biodiversity Area, including the stakeholders involved and the outcomes.
Key Biodiversity Areas are frequently located in regions where natural resources such as forests, minerals, and water are in high demand. The exploitation of these resources for economic development often comes into direct conflict with the goals of biodiversity conservation. Governments and corporations may prioritize economic growth and job creation, while local communities may rely on the resources for their livelihoods. Conservation organizations, on the other hand, focus on the protection of endangered species and ecosystems.
Types of Conflict in KBAs:
- Economic Exploitation: Activities such as logging, mining, and agriculture generate income but often lead to the destruction of habitats and loss of biodiversity.
- Sustainable Development: Efforts to promote sustainable development in KBAs may include eco-friendly agriculture, sustainable forestry, or ecotourism. However, finding a balance between economic needs and conservation goals can be difficult.
- Conservation: Conservation efforts in KBAs focus on protecting species and ecosystems. This often involves establishing protected areas, regulating resource use, and engaging local communities in conservation initiatives. These efforts can be met with resistance from those who rely on resource extraction for their livelihoods.
Challenges in Managing Conflict in KBAs
- Economic Pressures: In many KBAs, economic activities such as logging, agriculture, and mining are vital sources of income for local populations and governments. These activities often conflict with the goals of conservation, as they lead to habitat destruction and biodiversity loss.
- Weak Governance: In many countries, environmental regulations are weak or poorly enforced, allowing illegal activities such as logging and mining to take place within KBAs. Corruption and lack of political will can further undermine conservation efforts.
- Stakeholder Conflicts: Conflicts arise when the interests of different stakeholders are not aligned. Governments may prioritize economic growth, while conservationists focus on protecting biodiversity, and local communities seek to maintain their livelihoods. These conflicting interests make it difficult to find solutions that benefit all parties.
Strategies to Resolve Conflict in KBAs
- Sustainable Resource Management: Promoting sustainable practices, such as eco-friendly agriculture, responsible mining, and sustainable forestry, can reduce the environmental impact of economic activities in KBAs while providing livelihoods for local communities.
- Community Engagement: Involving local communities in the management of KBAs is crucial for achieving conservation goals. Community-based conservation projects empower local people to make decisions about resource use and conservation, ensuring that their needs are met while protecting biodiversity.
- Example: In Madagascar, community-based forest management programs have helped reduce deforestation and protect critical habitats.
- Stronger Environmental Regulations: Governments need to implement and enforce stricter environmental laws to protect KBAs from exploitation. This includes cracking down on illegal activities such as poaching, logging, and mining.
- Eco-Friendly Alternatives: Developing alternative livelihoods, such as ecotourism and sustainable farming, can provide economic benefits without destroying ecosystems. This helps reduce the reliance on activities that harm biodiversity.
Activity: Identify and research Key Biodiversity Areas (KBAs) conflict. Identify the conflict, economic explitations and conservation
- Select a KBA where there is a known conflict between economic exploitation and conservation effort
- Consider:
- Describe the KBA, its location, and its ecological significance. Highlight its biodiversity, endemic species, and ecosystem services.
- Identify the main conflict within the KBA, focusing on the tension between economic activities and conservation goals.
- Explore the economic activities driving the conflict, such as:
- Logging, mining, or oil exploration.
- Agricultural expansion or monoculture plantations.
- Tourism and fishing industries.
- Investigate the conservation initiatives and strategies aimed at protecting the KBA. This could include:
- Protected area status.
- Efforts to promote sustainable economic alternatives, such as ecotourism.
- Legal frameworks or international agreements protecting the area.
- Analyze the Conflict:
- Identify the different stakeholders in the conflict, such as:
- Government authorities.
- Local communities or indigenous groups.
- Corporations involved in resource extraction or tourism.
- Conservation organizations.
- Analyze the economic benefits of exploiting the resources within the KBA. Consider factors like job creation, government revenue, and local livelihoods.
- Evaluate the environmental costs of economic exploitation, including habitat destruction, biodiversity loss, and ecosystem degradation.
- Explore the impact on local communities, including displacement, loss of traditional livelihoods, or access to natural resources.
- Identify the different stakeholders in the conflict, such as:
3.2.11 Traditional indigenous approaches to land management can be seen as more sustainable but are facing challenges of population growth, economic development, climate change and a lack of governmental support and protection.
- Define the term "traditional land management" and explain its role in biodiversity conservation.
- List two internal and two external pressures that threaten indigenous land management practices.
- Outline the threats posed by population growth and economic development to traditional land management practices like rotational farming.
- Explain why the inclusion of indigenous perspectives is essential for achieving sustainable biodiversity conservation.
- Describe one example of a traditional land management practice under threat and the factors contributing to its decline.
Indigenous communities play a crucial role in biodiversity conservation. According to the COP15 Kunming-Montreal Agreement on Biodiversity, it was acknowledged that indigenous peoples are essential in protecting the world’s biodiversity, with a target set to protect 30% of all land by 2030. Indigenous peoples manage areas that harbor much of the planet’s biodiversity, and their sustainable practices are often intertwined with their cultural and spiritual beliefs. However, these practices are increasingly under threat.
Key Elements of Indigenous Land Management:
However, as indigenous communities grow economically and are exposed to external pressures, maintaining these sustainable practices becomes more challenging.
- Place-Based Practices: Traditional indigenous land management practices are highly specific to the local environment and ecosystem, making it difficult to generalize these practices for other regions.
- Sustainability: Indigenous communities have long practiced sustainability, managing resources in a way that meets their needs without depleting the natural environment. These practices often work within the limits of planetary boundaries, ensuring long-term ecological balance.
- Knowledge Systems: Indigenous peoples possess a wealth of traditional ecological knowledge that has been passed down through generations. This knowledge plays an important role in conserving biodiversity and managing ecosystems in a sustainable way.
However, as indigenous communities grow economically and are exposed to external pressures, maintaining these sustainable practices becomes more challenging.
Conflicts Over Land Use
Biodiversity conservation often involves setting aside land for protected areas, which can lead to conflicts with local communities who rely on these areas for agriculture, fishing, hunting, or other activities. In many parts of the world, rural communities depend on natural resources for their livelihoods, and restricting access to these resources for conservation purposes can create economic challenges.
Biodiversity conservation often involves setting aside land for protected areas, which can lead to conflicts with local communities who rely on these areas for agriculture, fishing, hunting, or other activities. In many parts of the world, rural communities depend on natural resources for their livelihoods, and restricting access to these resources for conservation purposes can create economic challenges.
- Example: In Madagascar, communities living near national parks rely on forests for agriculture (through slash-and-burn techniques), hunting, and gathering medicinal plants. When access to these areas is restricted due to conservation efforts, tensions can arise, especially if alternative livelihoods are not provided.
- Ethical Question: Should the immediate needs of local communities take precedence over the long-term benefits of conserving ecosystems and species for future generations?
Threats to Indigenous Sustainable Land Management
Indigenous land management faces both internal and external pressures that undermine sustainability:
Indigenous land management faces both internal and external pressures that undermine sustainability:
- Internal Pressures:
- Population Growth and Economic Development:
As indigenous populations grow, traditional practices like rotational farming, once sustainable on a small scale, are now practiced on larger scales, leading to deforestation, soil degradation, and pollution.- Example: The Runa people of Ecuador and the Pwa Ka Nyaw of Thailand use rotational farming, but expansion of this practice has caused large-scale deforestation in some areas.
- Population Growth and Economic Development:
- External Pressures:
- Climate Change:
Climate shifts are reducing the resilience of ecosystems that indigenous communities rely on, shortening the fallow periods necessary for regeneration and decreasing soil fertility.- Example: In rotational farming regions, climate change reduces the capacity for natural ecosystem recovery, leading to biodiversity loss.
- Lack of Governmental Support:
Indigenous practices often lack recognition and support from national governments, which prioritize large-scale agriculture, mining, and infrastructure projects that degrade indigenous lands.- Example: In the Amazon, indigenous territories face illegal logging and mining despite their importance for biodiversity conservation.
- Adoption of Global Development Models:
Some indigenous communities are adopting economic models focused on short-term gains, which replace traditional sustainable practices with monoculture plantations, leading to biodiversity decline.- Example: In Southeast Asia, traditional agroforestry is being replaced by palm oil monocultures, contributing to habitat loss.
- Climate Change:
Ethical Issues in Conservation and Indigenous Practices
Conservation efforts often create ethical dilemmas, particularly concerning indigenous land management practices:
Conservation efforts often create ethical dilemmas, particularly concerning indigenous land management practices:
- Displacement and Land Use Conflicts:
Indigenous peoples are sometimes displaced to create protected areas, undermining their rights and sustainable land management traditions.- Example: The Maasai people in Tanzania were displaced from their ancestral lands to establish national parks, causing social and economic challenges, as the land was traditionally used for grazing livestock.
- Undermining Traditional Knowledge:
Conservation efforts that exclude indigenous knowledge risk being ineffective and can create conflicts between local communities and conservationists.- Example: In biodiversity-rich regions, top-down conservation approaches that neglect indigenous involvement often face resistance and reduced success, as seen in various international projects.
Strategies to Address Threats to Indigenous Land Management
- Integrating Indigenous Knowledge:
Involve indigenous communities in conservation policies to respect their practices and preserve biodiversity.- Example: The COP15 Kunming-Montreal agreement aims to protect 30% of all land by 2030, including indigenous territories.
- Collaborative Land Management:
Joint decision-making between indigenous peoples and conservation groups can balance development with sustainable resource use.- Example: Ecuador's Socio Bosque program compensates communities for forest conservation efforts.
- Sustainable Economic Alternatives:
Support ecotourism and agroforestry to provide economic benefits while conserving biodiversity.- Example: In Costa Rica, community-based ecotourism supports both conservation and local income.
Activity: Research a specific example where conservation efforts have led to ethical conflicts. Discuss how indigenous rights and biodiversity conservation can be balanced.
- Consider
- Background of the Conservation Effort: Describe the specific conservation initiative, such as the creation of a national park or protected area.
- Indigenous Community Involvement: Investigate the indigenous community affected, focusing on their traditional land use, cultural practices, and how they manage biodiversity.
- Ethical Conflicts: Identify the key points of conflict, such as land rights, displacement, restrictions on traditional practices, or lack of consultation.
- Impacts: Analyze the impacts of the conservation effort on both biodiversity and the indigenous community, including social, economic, and cultural consequences.
- Legal and Policy Context: Examine any laws or policies related to indigenous rights and conservation that play a role in the conflict.
- Explore potential solutions or strategies that could help balance biodiversity conservation with indigenous rights, such as:
- Collaborative management or co-management of protected areas.
- Involvement of indigenous communities in decision-making.
- Compensation for land loss or alternative livelihoods.
- Prepare a case study summarizing your findings.
3.2.12 Environmental justice must be considered when undertaking conservation efforts to address biodiversity loss.
- Define:the term "environmental justice" in the context of biodiversity conservation.
- List two reasons why marginalized communities are more vulnerable to biodiversity loss.
- Outline he environmental justice issues that arise when indigenous peoples are displaced for the creation of protected areas.
- Explain how climate change disproportionately affects indigenous communities and their role in biodiversity conservation.
- Describe one example of environmental justice in biodiversity conservation, including the conflict and the strategies used to address it.
Environmental justice refers to the fair and equitable distribution of environmental benefits and burdens among all people, regardless of race, ethnicity, income, or nationality. In biodiversity conservation, environmental justice issues arise when conservation efforts disproportionately affect marginalized communities, particularly indigenous peoples and low-income groups. These communities are often the most vulnerable to biodiversity loss, as they rely heavily on local ecosystems for their livelihoods, culture, and well-being.
It is vital to ensure that conservation efforts do not exacerbate social inequalities and that all communities have a voice in decision-making processes. Environmental justice is a key consideration in achieving sustainable and equitable conservation outcomes.
It is vital to ensure that conservation efforts do not exacerbate social inequalities and that all communities have a voice in decision-making processes. Environmental justice is a key consideration in achieving sustainable and equitable conservation outcomes.
Vulnerability of Marginalized Communities to Biodiversity Loss
Many marginalized communities, especially indigenous peoples and low-income groups, depend directly on biodiversity for survival. They are particularly vulnerable to biodiversity loss due to limited adaptive capacity and access to alternative livelihoods.
Environmental Justice Concern: Biodiversity loss worsens social and economic inequalities for these communities. Conservation efforts must address their specific vulnerabilities to prevent further marginalization.
Many marginalized communities, especially indigenous peoples and low-income groups, depend directly on biodiversity for survival. They are particularly vulnerable to biodiversity loss due to limited adaptive capacity and access to alternative livelihoods.
- Example: In the Amazon Basin, indigenous communities face food insecurity and economic marginalization as deforestation from illegal logging and mining destroys vital resources.
Environmental Justice Concern: Biodiversity loss worsens social and economic inequalities for these communities. Conservation efforts must address their specific vulnerabilities to prevent further marginalization.
Displacement and Loss of Land Rights
Biodiversity conservation, such as the creation of protected areas, can displace indigenous and local communities, depriving them of traditional land rights and resources they have sustainably managed for generations. This leads to social and economic disruptions, including the loss of livelihoods and cultural practices.
Environmental Justice Concern: Conservation efforts must respect indigenous land rights and ensure marginalized communities are not displaced without fair compensation or alternative livelihoods.
Biodiversity conservation, such as the creation of protected areas, can displace indigenous and local communities, depriving them of traditional land rights and resources they have sustainably managed for generations. This leads to social and economic disruptions, including the loss of livelihoods and cultural practices.
- Example: The Maasai people in Tanzania were displaced from the Serengeti National Park for wildlife conservation and tourism, limiting their access to grazing lands and undermining their traditional way of life.
Environmental Justice Concern: Conservation efforts must respect indigenous land rights and ensure marginalized communities are not displaced without fair compensation or alternative livelihoods.
Lack of Representation in Decision-Making
Marginalized communities, especially indigenous peoples, are often excluded from biodiversity conservation decision-making, despite their deep knowledge of ecosystems and sustainable practices. This exclusion weakens conservation efforts and increases social inequalities.
Environmental Justice Concern: Involving marginalized communities in decision-making is essential for fair and effective conservation strategies, ensuring their knowledge is respected and utilized.
Marginalized communities, especially indigenous peoples, are often excluded from biodiversity conservation decision-making, despite their deep knowledge of ecosystems and sustainable practices. This exclusion weakens conservation efforts and increases social inequalities.
- Example: In the Congo Basin, local communities' sustainable practices are often ignored in conservation initiatives, leading to hunting restrictions and tensions with authorities.
Environmental Justice Concern: Involving marginalized communities in decision-making is essential for fair and effective conservation strategies, ensuring their knowledge is respected and utilized.
Climate Change
Climate change is disproportionately affecting marginalized communities, particularly those who depend on biodiversity for their livelihoods. Rising temperatures, changing precipitation patterns, and more frequent extreme weather events are disrupting ecosystems and making it harder for these communities to manage their resources sustainably.
Economic Development and Resource Exploitation
Indigenous and marginalized communities often live in areas rich in natural resources, which makes them vulnerable to exploitation by industries such as mining, logging, and agriculture. These activities can lead to environmental degradation, loss of biodiversity, and displacement of communities.
Climate change is disproportionately affecting marginalized communities, particularly those who depend on biodiversity for their livelihoods. Rising temperatures, changing precipitation patterns, and more frequent extreme weather events are disrupting ecosystems and making it harder for these communities to manage their resources sustainably.
- Example: In the Arctic, indigenous peoples like the Inuit depend on hunting and fishing for their survival. Climate change is rapidly melting sea ice, reducing access to traditional hunting grounds and altering the distribution of key species such as seals and polar bears. This threatens the Inuit’s food security and cultural practices.
Economic Development and Resource Exploitation
Indigenous and marginalized communities often live in areas rich in natural resources, which makes them vulnerable to exploitation by industries such as mining, logging, and agriculture. These activities can lead to environmental degradation, loss of biodiversity, and displacement of communities.
- Example: In Brazil, illegal logging and mining in the Amazon rainforest are encroaching on indigenous territories, leading to deforestation, water pollution, and loss of biodiversity. These activities not only threaten the environment but also undermine the livelihoods and rights of indigenous peoples who depend on the forest for their survival.
Strategies for Promoting Environmental Justice in Biodiversity Conservation
Recognizing Indigenous Rights:
Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP),
Community-Based Conservation:
Recognizing Indigenous Rights:
- Governments and conservation organizations must recognize the land rights of indigenous peoples and ensure that conservation efforts do not infringe upon these rights. International agreements, such as the United Nations
Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP),
- Emphasize the need to respect indigenous land rights in conservation policies.
Community-Based Conservation:
- Involving local communities in the management of protected areas and conservation initiatives can help promote environmental justice. Community-based conservation projects empower marginalized groups to manage their natural resources sustainably while benefiting from conservation efforts.
- Example: In Nepal, community forestry programs have allowed local people to manage forest resources while protecting biodiversity. These programs have been successful in reducing deforestation and improving livelihoods.
- Equitable Benefit-Sharing: When biodiversity conservation leads to economic benefits, such as through ecotourism or payments for ecosystem services, it is essential that these benefits are shared equitably with local communities. This can help reduce conflicts over land use and ensure that marginalized groups benefit from conservation efforts.
Case Study: The Maasai People in the Serengeti National Park
The Serengeti National Park in Tanzania is one of the world’s most famous wildlife conservation areas, known for its large populations of wildebeest, elephants, and lions. However, the park’s creation in 1951 led to the displacement of the Maasai people, who had lived in the region for centuries. The Maasai practiced sustainable grazing, which allowed them to coexist with the wildlife in the area.
The Serengeti National Park in Tanzania is one of the world’s most famous wildlife conservation areas, known for its large populations of wildebeest, elephants, and lions. However, the park’s creation in 1951 led to the displacement of the Maasai people, who had lived in the region for centuries. The Maasai practiced sustainable grazing, which allowed them to coexist with the wildlife in the area.
- Conflict: The establishment of the park restricted the Maasai’s access to grazing land, forcing them to relocate to areas with less fertile land. This displacement has contributed to poverty, food insecurity, and loss of cultural practices among the Maasai.
- Environmental Justice Concern: The Maasai’s displacement highlights the ethical dilemma between protecting wildlife and respecting indigenous rights. Conservation efforts that exclude local communities or disregard their traditional knowledge can lead to social and economic injustices, undermining both conservation goals and human rights.
- Resolution Attempts: In recent years, there have been efforts to involve the Maasai in conservation initiatives, including the development of community-based conservation programs that allow them to benefit from ecotourism and regain access to grazing land.
Activity: Research how marginalized communities are affected by biodiversity loss and explore the social, economic, and environmental impacts.
- Select a marginalized community that is heavily dependent on biodiversity for their livelihoods. Consider
- Community Background: Explore the cultural, social, and economic ties the community has with local biodiversity.
- Threats to Biodiversity: Identify the main threats affecting the local biodiversity (e.g., deforestation, mining, climate change).
- Impacts on the Community: Analyze how biodiversity loss has affected the community’s access to resources, cultural practices, food security, and economic stability.
- Conservation and Justice Issues: Investigate any conflicts between conservation efforts and community rights, and assess how environmental justice is being addressed or neglected.
- Prepare a case study summarizing your findings. The presentation should include:
- The socio-economic background of the community.
- Biodiversity challenges they face.
- How conservation efforts have impacted the community (both positive and negative).
- Recommendations for balancing biodiversity conservation and community needs.
3.2.13 The planetary boundary “loss of biosphere integrity” indicates that species extinctions have already crossed a critical threshold.
- Define he term "planetary boundary" and explain its relevance to biodiversity conservation.
- List two human activities that are driving species extinctions and contributing to the loss of biosphere integrity.
- Outline the role of species extinctions in pushing the Earth system toward a tipping point.
- Explain how biodiversity loss could lead to the collapse of ecosystem services that humans rely on.
- Describe one example of a tipping point scenario in which species extinctions could have global consequences
The planetary boundary framework, introduced by Johan Rockström and colleagues in 2009, outlines nine boundaries that define a "safe operating space" for humanity. These boundaries represent thresholds in Earth's systems that, if crossed, could lead to catastrophic environmental changes. One of these boundaries is biosphere integrity, which refers to the health and stability of the planet’s ecosystems and species diversity.
Biosphere Integrity and Species Extinctions
Biosphere integrity is measured by two key factors:
Species extinctions erode both genetic and functional diversity, weakening ecosystems and making them more vulnerable to collapse. The current rate of species extinction is estimated to be 100 to 1,000 times higher than the natural background rate due to human activities, such as habitat destruction, overexploitation, pollution, and climate change. This rapid loss of biodiversity threatens to undermine the stability of the Earth system as a whole.
Biosphere Integrity and Species Extinctions
Biosphere integrity is measured by two key factors:
- Genetic Diversity: The diversity of genes within species, which is crucial for species' ability to adapt to changing environments.
- Functional Diversity: The variety of species and ecosystems that perform essential ecological functions, such as pollination, nutrient cycling, and carbon sequestration.
Species extinctions erode both genetic and functional diversity, weakening ecosystems and making them more vulnerable to collapse. The current rate of species extinction is estimated to be 100 to 1,000 times higher than the natural background rate due to human activities, such as habitat destruction, overexploitation, pollution, and climate change. This rapid loss of biodiversity threatens to undermine the stability of the Earth system as a whole.
Human Impacts Driving Species Extinctions
Human activities are the primary drivers of species extinctions, with significant consequences for biosphere integrity:
Habitat Destruction:
Human activities are the primary drivers of species extinctions, with significant consequences for biosphere integrity:
Habitat Destruction:
- Deforestation, urban expansion, and agricultural land conversion have fragmented ecosystems, destroying the habitats that species need to survive.
- Example: The conversion of tropical forests for palm oil plantations in Southeast Asia has led to the loss of critical habitats for species such as the orangutan and the Sumatran tiger.
- Unsustainable hunting, fishing, and logging have driven many species to the brink of extinction.
- Example: The overharvesting of fish species like bluefin tuna has drastically reduced their populations, threatening the stability of marine food webs.
- Air, water, and soil pollution have contributed to the decline of species by altering their habitats and making them inhospitable for survival.
- Example: Pesticide use has been linked to the global decline of bee populations, which play a crucial role in pollination and food production.
- Rising temperatures and changing weather patterns are shifting ecosystems and forcing species to adapt or face extinction. Many species are unable to move or adapt quickly enough to keep up with climate change.
- Example: Polar bears are losing critical sea ice habitat due to Arctic warming, leading to a decline in their population and disrupting Arctic ecosystems.
- The introduction of non-native species to new environments, often as a result of human activity, has disrupted ecosystems and led to the extinction of native species.
- Example: The introduction of the brown tree snake to Guam has caused the extinction of several native bird species on the island.
The Tipping Point Hypothesis: A Planetary Crisis?
The loss of biodiversity has the potential to push the Earth system toward a tipping point—a threshold beyond which the planet's ecosystems and climate systems may shift irreversibly. Once this tipping point is crossed, the Earth could experience rapid and unpredictable changes, making it increasingly difficult for ecosystems to recover and for humans to maintain a stable environment.
Why Species Extinctions Could Trigger a Tipping Point
Ecosystem Collapse:
Disruption of Carbon and Water Cycles:
Reduced Resilience to Environmental Change:
Tipping Point Scenarios
Biodiversity-Climate Feedback Loop:
Collapse of Global Ecosystem Services:
The loss of biodiversity has the potential to push the Earth system toward a tipping point—a threshold beyond which the planet's ecosystems and climate systems may shift irreversibly. Once this tipping point is crossed, the Earth could experience rapid and unpredictable changes, making it increasingly difficult for ecosystems to recover and for humans to maintain a stable environment.
Why Species Extinctions Could Trigger a Tipping Point
Ecosystem Collapse:
- Many ecosystems rely on a delicate balance of species to function effectively. The extinction of keystone species—those that have a disproportionately large effect on their ecosystem—can lead to the collapse of entire ecosystems, reducing the planet's ability to regulate climate, cycle nutrients, and provide essential services.
- Example: The loss of pollinators, such as bees and butterflies, could lead to the collapse of agricultural systems that rely on pollination, threatening global food security.
Disruption of Carbon and Water Cycles:
- Biodiversity plays a critical role in regulating the carbon and water cycles. For example, forests sequester carbon dioxide and influence rainfall patterns. The loss of forests due to species extinctions and habitat degradation could exacerbate climate change by reducing the planet’s ability to absorb carbon and regulate the water cycle.
- Example: Deforestation in the Amazon Rainforest, which is accelerating due to logging and agricultural expansion, is reducing the forest’s capacity to sequester carbon and regulate rainfall across South America.
Reduced Resilience to Environmental Change:
- Biodiverse ecosystems are more resilient to environmental changes, such as climate variability, disease outbreaks, and extreme weather events. As species are lost, ecosystems become less resilient, making it harder for them to recover from disturbances.
- Example: Coral reefs are highly biodiverse ecosystems that buffer coastlines from storm surges and support marine biodiversity. The loss of coral species due to ocean acidification and warming seas is reducing the resilience of these ecosystems, leading to widespread coral bleaching and die-offs.
Tipping Point Scenarios
Biodiversity-Climate Feedback Loop:
- As ecosystems collapse and biodiversity declines, the Earth’s ability to absorb carbon diminishes, leading to further warming and additional biodiversity loss in a self-reinforcing feedback loop.
- Example: The thawing of the Arctic permafrost due to warming temperatures could release vast amounts of stored methane, a potent greenhouse gas, accelerating global warming and triggering further extinctions.
Collapse of Global Ecosystem Services:
- The loss of biodiversity could lead to the collapse of global ecosystem services that humans depend on, such as food production, clean water, and climate regulation. Without these services, human societies would face increasing risks of food shortages, water scarcity, and more frequent natural disasters.
- Example: The decline of fish stocks due to overfishing and habitat degradation is threatening the livelihoods of millions of people who depend on the ocean for food and income.
Evidence for the Tipping Point Hypothesis
While it is difficult to predict exactly when or how a tipping point will occur, there is growing evidence that biodiversity loss is pushing the Earth system toward instability:
While it is difficult to predict exactly when or how a tipping point will occur, there is growing evidence that biodiversity loss is pushing the Earth system toward instability:
- The Sixth Mass Extinction: Scientists warn that we are currently experiencing a sixth mass extinction, driven by human activities. This mass extinction is happening at a much faster rate than previous extinction events in Earth's history, which were caused by natural phenomena such as asteroid impacts and volcanic eruptions.
- Ecosystem Degradation on a Global Scale: Major ecosystems, such as tropical rainforests, coral reefs, and wetlands, are experiencing rapid degradation. The continued loss of species in these ecosystems could lead to large-scale disruptions in the Earth’s ability to support life.
- Planetary Boundary Studies: Recent studies on the planetary boundary framework suggest that the loss of biosphere integrity is one of the boundaries that has already been crossed, putting humanity at risk of pushing the Earth system into a new, less hospitable state.
Strategies to Prevent Crossing the Tipping Point
To prevent the Earth system from reaching a tipping point due to biodiversity loss, urgent action is needed at multiple levels:
Protecting Biodiversity Hotspots:
To prevent the Earth system from reaching a tipping point due to biodiversity loss, urgent action is needed at multiple levels:
Protecting Biodiversity Hotspots:
- Focusing conservation efforts on biodiversity hotspots—regions with high levels of species endemism and significant threats—can help protect the species most at risk of extinction.
- Example: The Western Ghats in India is a biodiversity hotspot that is home to numerous endangered species, and ongoing efforts to protect this region are critical for preserving its unique ecosystems.
- Restoring ecosystems that have been degraded by human activities, such as reforesting cleared lands and rehabilitating wetlands, can help rebuild biodiversity and strengthen ecosystem resilience.
- Example: The Bonn Challenge is a global effort to restore 350 million hectares of deforested and degraded land by 2030, which could significantly enhance biodiversity and carbon sequestration.
- Implementing sustainable agricultural, forestry, and fisheries practices can reduce the impact of human activities on biodiversity while supporting economic development.
- Example: The Sustainable Palm Oil Initiative promotes deforestation-free palm oil production, reducing the impact on tropical rainforests and the species that live there.
- International agreements such as the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the Kunming-Montreal COP15 aim to set global targets for biodiversity conservation, such as protecting 30% of land and sea areas by 2030.
Key Terms
Overharvesting
Poaching Illegal pet trade Habitat loss Invasive alien species HLONLY Biodiversity hotspots Key Biodiversity Areas (KBAs) Environmental justice Indigenous land rights Ethical dilemmas Planetary boundaries Biosphere integrity Tipping point Species extinctions |
Resilience
Cumulative impacts Invasive species Climate change Human interference |
Habitat fragmentation
Resilience Keystone species |
IUCN Red List
Endangered species Vulnerable species Conservation status Conservation priorities |
Classroom Materials

Subtopic 3.2 Human Impact on Biodiversity.pptx | |
File Size: | 12383 kb |
File Type: | pptx |

Subtopic 3.2 Human Impact on Biodiversity Workbook.docx | |
File Size: | 410 kb |
File Type: | docx |
Vanishing of the Bees Movie questions
Saving Species Movie questions
Endangered Species Project
Hawaiian Birds Biodiversity Case Study
RedList endangered species worksheet
Where Biodiversity is At Most Risk in the US - NY Times article
Invasive Species Project
Pangolin - World's Most Hunted Species ppt
Tropical Rainforest Case Study
The Disappearing Rainforests- Jigsaw
Read the following article US AND CANADIAN MINING COMPANIES SEEK TO SUE COLOMBIA FOR $16.5 BILLION
Read the following article Environmental & social impacts of palm oil production
Case Studies
- Three detailed case studies of three different species: one that has become extinct due to human activity, another that is critically endangered, and a third species whose conservation status has been improved by intervention
- Example of a conflict between exploitation, sustainable development and conservation (eg. CAMPFIRE initiative in Zimbabwe)
- One detailed case study of the threats to biodiversity from human activity in a given natural area of biological significance or conservation area (can be a tropical ecosystem like the Great Barrier Reef to apply to the following bullet point as well)
- One detailed case study of the impact of human activity on the biodiversity of tropical biomes and the conflict between exploitation, sustainable development and conservation in tropical biomes
Correct use of terminology is a key skill in ESS. It is essential to use key terms correctly when communicating your understanding, particularly in assessments. Use the quizlet flashcards or other tools such as learn, scatter, space race, speller and test to help you master the vocabulary.
Useful Links
Hotspot Maker
Global Canopy - Global Canopy
Survival International
Red List of Threatened Species - IUCN
IUCN website
A tutorial on habitat fragmentation - WH Freeman
Endangered Species Handbook
Worlds 100 Most Threatened Species
1300 Bird Species Threatened ExtinctionRainforest Alliance
Adaptations of Tropical Plants
Critical Hotspots around the world
Hotspot: Madagascar
Hotspot Maker
Global Canopy - Global Canopy
Survival International
Red List of Threatened Species - IUCN
IUCN website
A tutorial on habitat fragmentation - WH Freeman
Endangered Species Handbook
Worlds 100 Most Threatened Species
1300 Bird Species Threatened ExtinctionRainforest Alliance
Adaptations of Tropical Plants
Critical Hotspots around the world
Hotspot: Madagascar
In The News
Should we cull one species to save another? -Guardian June 2020
Number of species on Earth tagged at 8.7 million - Nature 23 Aug 2011
Biodiversity loss: How accurate are the numbers? - BBC 25 April 2012_
US Congress strips grey wolves of protected status - BBC News, 15 April 2011
Bad news: Tanzania is one of the worst offenders of CITES ivory ban - allafrica.com 7 April 2013
CITES meeting in Bangkok to deal with ‘extinction crisis’? - BBC Science and Environment News 2 March 2013
Time to legalize trade in rhino horns? Some experts think so - BBC Science and Environment News 28 February 2013
11,000 elephants killed in poaching boom since 2005 - BBC Science and Environment News 6 February 2013
That Cuddly Kitty is Deadlier Than You Think - New York Times 29 January 2013
Javan rhino now ‘extinct in Vietnam’ - BBC Science and Environment News 25 October 2011
Great Indian bustard faces extinction - BBC Nature News 7 June 2011
Overfishing and ecologically sustainable yield in Jamaica - American Scientist magazine
Wildlife ‘crash’ in Masai Mara region of Kenya - BBC Science and Environment News 31 May 2011
Extinction Rate Across Globe Reaches Historical Proportion - Science Daily News 10 January 2002
Western black rhino declared extinct - BBC Science and Environment News 10 November 2011
Natural gas production and populations of pronghorn antelope and elk in Wyoming, USA - New Scientist Environment
News 4 May 2012
Global biodiversity down 30% in last 40 years - MSNBC News 14 May 2012
Should we cull one species to save another? -Guardian June 2020
Number of species on Earth tagged at 8.7 million - Nature 23 Aug 2011
Biodiversity loss: How accurate are the numbers? - BBC 25 April 2012_
US Congress strips grey wolves of protected status - BBC News, 15 April 2011
Bad news: Tanzania is one of the worst offenders of CITES ivory ban - allafrica.com 7 April 2013
CITES meeting in Bangkok to deal with ‘extinction crisis’? - BBC Science and Environment News 2 March 2013
Time to legalize trade in rhino horns? Some experts think so - BBC Science and Environment News 28 February 2013
11,000 elephants killed in poaching boom since 2005 - BBC Science and Environment News 6 February 2013
That Cuddly Kitty is Deadlier Than You Think - New York Times 29 January 2013
Javan rhino now ‘extinct in Vietnam’ - BBC Science and Environment News 25 October 2011
Great Indian bustard faces extinction - BBC Nature News 7 June 2011
Overfishing and ecologically sustainable yield in Jamaica - American Scientist magazine
Wildlife ‘crash’ in Masai Mara region of Kenya - BBC Science and Environment News 31 May 2011
Extinction Rate Across Globe Reaches Historical Proportion - Science Daily News 10 January 2002
Western black rhino declared extinct - BBC Science and Environment News 10 November 2011
Natural gas production and populations of pronghorn antelope and elk in Wyoming, USA - New Scientist Environment
News 4 May 2012
Global biodiversity down 30% in last 40 years - MSNBC News 14 May 2012
International-mindedness:
- Biodiversity loss is a global challenge that transcends national borders, affecting ecosystems, economies, and cultures worldwide. International cooperation and cross-cultural understanding are essential to address the human impact on biodiversity and develop sustainable solutions that respect both environmental integrity and the rights of all people, particularly indigenous communities
Theory of knowledge:
- To what extent do ethical considerations influence the knowledge we use to make decisions about biodiversity conservation?
Video Clips
The story centers around the sudden disappearance of honey bees from beehives around the world, caused by the poorly understood phenomenon known as Colony Collapse Disorder or CCD. Although the film does not draw any firm scientific conclusions as to the precise cause or causes of CCD, it does suggest a link between neonicotinoid pesticides and CCD.
Photographer Joel Sartore portrays some of the world's most imperiled creatures—from whooping cranes to wolves—before they become extinct.
Throughout humankind's history, we've driven species after species extinct: the passenger pigeon, the Eastern mountain lion, the dodo .... But now, says Stewart Brand, we have the technology (and the biology) to bring back species that humanity wiped out.
The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species™ is widely recognized as the most comprehensive, objective global approach for evaluating the conservation status of plants, animals and fungi. The IUCN Red List includes a wealth of information which is used to identify the pressures that are pushing species towards extinction across the world.
IUCN video about the crisis of biodiversity and species extinction, and the main causes of it.
"Tropical rainforests currently remove around 15% of human CO2 emissions annually....but if you warm the Amazon it actually stops helping us and becomes a potential accelerator of climate change."
The Rainforest Alliance Sustainable Forestry Management Program in the Peten region of Guatemala provides training, technical assistance, and marketing support for sustainable forestry management, tourism and hospitality businesses. These efforts are part of the Rainforest Alliance's broader effort to transform the global tourism industry into one that benefits the planet and local communities.
Tropical Rainforest takes you on a 400 million year journey to illustrate the diversity and beauty of life in the forests. Featuring the birds and primates of the forest canopy and insects of the forest floor, Tropical Rainforest also shows the adventure of researchers challenged to understand the forests even as they disappear. From extreme close-ups to tree-top panoramas, the film lets you experience the forest on its own terms, to better understand and appreciate the treasures of this environment.
Most palm oil is produced in Malaysia and Indonesia on land that was once thriving rainforest. As global demand grows, more and more forests are being cleared. In areas such as Borneo and Sumatra, rich in biodiversity, deforestation can be catastrophic. Endangered species including orang-utans, tigers, elephants and rhinos are losing critical habitats, pushing them toward extinction.
The northern white rhino is on the brink of extinction. Poachers decimated the population, but now science has a chance to bring it back. VOA’s Arash Arabasadi reports