subtopic 3.3: conservation and regeneration
Life has existed on Earth for over 3.5 billion years. Over 95% of the species that ever existed have gone extinct. So why should we be concerned about current extinction rates and conserving biodiversity?
It has become clear that biodiversity is the cornerstone of our existence on Earth. It is also important to conserve biodiversity for the sake of our own curiosity and aesthetic appreciation.
In this unit you will consider arguments for preserving species and habitats based on ethical, aesthetic, genetic resources and commercial considerations. You will also look at the activities of intergovernmental and non-governmental organisations in preserving and restoring ecosystems.
This unit is a minimum of 4 hours.
It has become clear that biodiversity is the cornerstone of our existence on Earth. It is also important to conserve biodiversity for the sake of our own curiosity and aesthetic appreciation.
In this unit you will consider arguments for preserving species and habitats based on ethical, aesthetic, genetic resources and commercial considerations. You will also look at the activities of intergovernmental and non-governmental organisations in preserving and restoring ecosystems.
This unit is a minimum of 4 hours.
Guiding Questions:
- How can different strategies for conserving and regenerating natural systems be compared?
- How do worldviews affect the choices made in protecting natural systems?
Understanding:
3.3.1 Arguments for species and habitat preservation can be based on aesthetic, ecological, economic, ethical and social justifications.
- Define what is meant by ecosystem services.
- List three economic reasons for biodiversity conservation.
- Outline the ethical arguments for species preservation.
- Describe the social benefits of habitat conservation.
- Explain how biodiversity can contribute to a country’s economy.
Preserving species and habitats is critical for maintaining ecological balance, supporting human societies, and safeguarding the planet’s future. The arguments for conservation are multi-faceted:
You should appreciate arguments based on ethical, aesthetic, genetic resource and commercial (including opportunity cost) considerations. You should also appreciate life support and ecosystem-support functions.
- Aesthetic: The natural beauty of ecosystems and species enhances human well-being and inspires recreation, art, and tourism.
- Ecological: Ecosystems provide critical services such as climate regulation, water purification, and pollination, which are essential for the survival of many species, including humans.
- Economic: Biodiversity contributes to industries such as agriculture, pharmaceuticals, and ecotourism. For instance, forests act as carbon sinks and contribute to water cycle regulation, while ecotourism, such as in Kenya’s wildlife parks, generates significant revenue.
- Ethical: Many argue that species and ecosystems have an inherent right to exist, independent of their utility to humans. Conservation is seen as a moral duty to protect all forms of life.
- Social: Indigenous communities often rely on biodiversity for cultural practices and livelihoods. Conservation also helps protect their heritage.
Examples:
- ecosystem productivity (a.k.a. ecosystem services) i.e. soil aeration, pollination, fertilization, carbon sequestration, oxygen production ,climate regulation, etc
- scientific or educational value
- biological control (another example of negative feedback)
- gene sources
- environmental monitors
- recreation and ecotourism
- human health - possible future medical applications
- rights of indigenous peoples
- intrinsic (ethical) value - biorights
Activity: Research a local conservation project
3.3.2 Species-based conservation tends to involve ex situ strategies, and habitat-based conservation tends to involve in situ strategies.
- Define ex situ conservation.
- List two examples of ex situ conservation.
- Outline the benefits of in situ conservation.
- Describe how seed banks help preserve biodiversity.
- Explain the difference between ex situ and in situ conservation strategies
Conservation efforts can be classified into species-based and habitat-based strategies, both of which are essential for protecting biodiversity:
Ex Situ Conservation
Refers to the protection and preservation of species outside their natural habitats. This approach is often used when species are critically endangered and need immediate intervention to prevent extinction. Ex situ conservation methods include:
Refers to the protection and preservation of species outside their natural habitats. This approach is often used when species are critically endangered and need immediate intervention to prevent extinction. Ex situ conservation methods include:
Botanic Gardens:
- Botanical gardens are vital for preserving plant biodiversity by providing safe environments for endangered species to grow and reproduce. Gardens like the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, house thousands of species, including those extinct in the wild, allowing botanists to study them and develop reintroduction strategies while maintaining genetic diversity.
Zoos:
- Zoos play a key role in animal conservation, offering breeding programs for endangered species and raising public awareness. The San Diego Zoo's efforts to save the California condor are a prime example. In the 1980s, with fewer than 30 condors left in the wild, a successful ex situ breeding program increased the population to over 400, with more than half now reintroduced into the wild.
Seed Banks:
- Seed banks are essential for preserving plant genetic diversity, particularly for endangered species and those at risk from climate change. The Svalbard Global Seed Vault in Norway and the Millennium Seed Bank at Kew Gardens store millions of seeds, safeguarding biodiversity and future food security. These banks protect over 2.4 billion seeds, ensuring plants can be reintroduced to ecosystems or support agriculture during environmental crises.
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES):
- CITES is an international agreement that regulates the trade of endangered species to ensure their survival. By controlling the export and import of animals and plants, CITES helps prevent over-exploitation and supports ex situ conservation efforts. Species such as elephants and rhinoceroses benefit from CITES protections, reducing illegal poaching and trade in ivory. Governments sign up voluntarily and establish their own national laws to monitor trade. Species are grouped according to how threatened they are by international trade.
- Appendix І: species can not be traded internationally as they are threatened by extinction.
- Appendix ІІ: species can be traded internationally but within strict regulations.
- Appendix ІІІ: species included at the request of a country which then needs the cooperation of other countries to help prevent the illegal exploitation.
In Situ Conservation
In situ conservation involves protecting species within their natural habitats by maintaining ecosystems and natural processes. This method preserves biodiversity by safeguarding both individual species and the ecosystems they depend on.
In situ conservation involves protecting species within their natural habitats by maintaining ecosystems and natural processes. This method preserves biodiversity by safeguarding both individual species and the ecosystems they depend on.
- National Parks: Large protected areas, like Serengeti National Park in Tanzania, provide a refuge for wildlife, allowing species such as elephants and lions to thrive while maintaining ecological balance. These parks are crucial for preserving habitats and supporting biodiversity.
- Reserves: Smaller conservation areas, like those in the Amazon Rainforest, protect biodiversity hotspots from threats like deforestation and poaching, helping to safeguard endangered species.
- Sanctuaries: Sanctuaries focus on specific endangered species, such as the Mountain Gorilla Sanctuary in Rwanda, which protects the habitat of critically endangered mountain gorillas, contributing to their population recovery.
Comparing Ex Situ and In Situ Conservation
Advantages and Disadvantages of Ex situ and In situ Conservation:
Activity: Consider two examples of ex situ measures and two examples of in situ measures. Evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of each approach (consider a table)
3.3.3 Sometimes a mixed conservation approach is adopted, where both habitat and particular species are considered.
- Define what is meant by a mixed conservation approach.
- List two benefits of combining ex situ and in situ conservation methods.
- Outline how reintroducing apex predators can restore ecosystems in in situ conservation efforts.
- Describe the role of zoos in mixed conservation strategies.
- Explain how flagship species are used in mixed conservation approaches.
In many cases, a combination of ex situ and in situ methods is employed to conserve species. For example, critically endangered species might be bred in captivity (ex situ) and later reintroduced to their natural habitats (in situ). The giant panda conservation project in China is a well-known example, where pandas are bred in facilities like the Chengdu Research Base and released into protected reserves.
By combining ex situ and in situ methods, conservationists can protect species in the short term while working toward long-term ecosystem restoration. Flagship species, such as pandas or tigers, are often used in mixed conservation approaches to draw attention to broader ecosystem protection efforts.
By combining ex situ and in situ methods, conservationists can protect species in the short term while working toward long-term ecosystem restoration. Flagship species, such as pandas or tigers, are often used in mixed conservation approaches to draw attention to broader ecosystem protection efforts.
Examples in Mixed Approaches
Arabian Oryx (Captive Breeding and Reintroduction):
Arabian Oryx (Captive Breeding and Reintroduction):
- Once extinct in the wild due to overhunting and habitat loss, the Arabian oryx was saved through a mixed approach. Ex situ conservation began in the 1960s with captive breeding programs, particularly at the Phoenix Zoo. As the population grew, oryx were reintroduced into protected areas in Oman and Saudi Arabia, where in situ conservation ensured suitable habitats. This combined effort led to the oryx being reclassified as "vulnerable" rather than extinct in the wild.
The African Elephant Conservation Project (Community-based Reserves)
- The African Elephant Conservation ProjectThis project combines ex situ research with in situ habitat conservation and community engagement. Ex situ efforts focus on studying elephant genetics and breeding behavior in sanctuaries and research institutions. In situ conservation involves creating community-based reserves, such as the Samburu National Reserve, where elephants roam freely and local communities manage the reserves. Ecotourism provides economic benefits, fostering a sustainable balance between human livelihoods and elephant protection.
Mixed Conservation Approaches and Flagship Species
Flagship species, often charismatic animals, are central to mixed conservation approaches by drawing public and financial support for broader efforts. For example, the WWF uses the giant panda to promote conservation not only for pandas but also for the entire ecosystems they inhabit. By focusing on these species, conservationists can secure resources to protect biodiversity and habitats, raising awareness and ensuring the protection of multiple species and ecosystem services.
Flagship species, often charismatic animals, are central to mixed conservation approaches by drawing public and financial support for broader efforts. For example, the WWF uses the giant panda to promote conservation not only for pandas but also for the entire ecosystems they inhabit. By focusing on these species, conservationists can secure resources to protect biodiversity and habitats, raising awareness and ensuring the protection of multiple species and ecosystem services.
Flagship and Keystone Species in Conservation:
Flagship species
Charismatic species selected to appeal to the public and thereby help to protect other species in an area. These species are charismatic, recognized, popular, large and furry but may not have significant role, They are used to ask for funds
Flagship species
Charismatic species selected to appeal to the public and thereby help to protect other species in an area. These species are charismatic, recognized, popular, large and furry but may not have significant role, They are used to ask for funds
- giant panda
- meerkats
- gorillas
- take priority over others
- become extinct if we failed
- in conflict with indigenous people
Keystone species
Species that are vital for the continuing function of the ecosystem. Without these species the ecosystem may collapse. Their disappearance from ecosystem has a far greater impact than to the system. They are not proportional to their numbers/biomass. These species can be difficult to identify
Species that are vital for the continuing function of the ecosystem. Without these species the ecosystem may collapse. Their disappearance from ecosystem has a far greater impact than to the system. They are not proportional to their numbers/biomass. These species can be difficult to identify
- sea otter eating sea urchins
- beavers engineers dams
- elephants removing trees so grasses can grow
Umbrella species:
These are often large species requiring large habitat areas. Protecting the habitat of this species also protects the habits of other species.The Giant panda is both a flagship species and an umbrella species.
These are often large species requiring large habitat areas. Protecting the habitat of this species also protects the habits of other species.The Giant panda is both a flagship species and an umbrella species.
Activity: Consider an example of a mixed approach where the emphasis of in situ measures is on a particular specieS
3.3.4 The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is a UN treaty addressing both species-based and habitat-based conservation.
- Define the Convention on Biological Diversity.
- List two protocols established under the CBD.
- Outline the key objectives of the CBD.
- Describe the purpose of National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans (NBSAPs).
- Explain how the Nagoya Protocol contributes to fair and equitable sharing of genetic resources.
- Describe one success and one challenge of the CBD’s implementation.
The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is an international treaty that was established at the Rio Earth Summit in 1992. It is one of the most comprehensive global agreements aimed at conserving biodiversity, ensuring the sustainable use of its components, and promoting the equitable sharing of the benefits arising from genetic resources. The CBD represents a critical framework for international cooperation on biodiversity conservation, especially in response to the rapid loss of species and habitats worldwide.
Key Objectives of the CBD:
Key Objectives of the CBD:
- Conservation of Biological Diversity: The CBD aims to preserve Earth's biodiversity, crucial for ecosystem stability and human well-being. It encourages countries to establish protected areas and implement strategies to protect species at risk. As of 2023, 196 countries are parties to the CBD, making it one of the most widely adopted environmental agreements.
- Sustainable Use of Biodiversity: This objective ensures biodiversity is used in a way that maintains ecosystem health for future generations. It promotes sustainable practices in industries like agriculture, forestry, and fisheries, such as sustainable forestry that balances timber harvesting with forest regeneration.
- Equitable Sharing of Benefits from Genetic Resources: The Nagoya Protocol ensures that benefits from the use of genetic resources, like medicinal plants, are fairly shared with their countries of origin. This includes monetary benefits, technology access, and collaboration, benefiting indigenous communities through compensation for their traditional knowledge.
The Role of National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans (NBSAPs):
Under the CBD, each signatory country is required to develop and implement a National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP). These plans outline specific measures to protect ecosystems, species, and genetic resources at the national level, in alignment with global biodiversity targets. For example, Brazil’s NBSAP focuses on protecting its rainforests, safeguarding indigenous communities, and reducing deforestation rates.
Under the CBD, each signatory country is required to develop and implement a National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP). These plans outline specific measures to protect ecosystems, species, and genetic resources at the national level, in alignment with global biodiversity targets. For example, Brazil’s NBSAP focuses on protecting its rainforests, safeguarding indigenous communities, and reducing deforestation rates.
- Aichi Biodiversity Targets (2010–2020):
- The Aichi Targets, agreed upon in 2010 as part of the CBD's Strategic Plan for Biodiversity, set 20 ambitious goals aimed at halting biodiversity loss and ensuring the sustainable use of natural resources by 2020. These targets addressed key issues such as habitat loss, overfishing, pollution, and invasive species. Although progress toward achieving these targets has been mixed, they helped establish a clear global framework for biodiversity conservation. The lessons learned from the Aichi Targets have informed the development of new biodiversity goals for the Post-2020 Global Biodiversity Framework.
- CBD’s Global Impact and Governance:
- The CBD promotes global cooperation and provides a platform for countries to work together on common challenges, such as climate change, habitat destruction, and species extinction. It also works with other international agreements, like the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), to address the links between climate change and biodiversity loss. The CBD is governed by a Conference of the Parties (COP), which meets every two years to review progress, set new priorities, and update global biodiversity strategies.
Protocols Under the CBD:
- Nagoya Protocol:
Focuses on access to genetic resources and the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from their use. It is particularly important for protecting the rights of indigenous peoples and countries rich in biodiversity. - Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety:
This protocol addresses the safe handling, transport, and use of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) to ensure that they do not negatively impact biodiversity, human health, or the environment.
Challenges and Criticisms of the CBD:
While the CBD has been successful in promoting global awareness and action on biodiversity, it faces several challenges:
While the CBD has been successful in promoting global awareness and action on biodiversity, it faces several challenges:
- Lack of Enforcement: The CBD does not have strict enforcement mechanisms, and countries are not legally bound to achieve specific outcomes. Implementation depends largely on national governments, which may have limited resources or political will.
- Funding Gaps: Many biodiversity-rich countries, particularly in the Global South, struggle to secure the necessary funding to implement their NBSAPs. Financial support from international donors and organizations is often insufficient to meet the ambitious goals set by the CBD.
- Slow Progress: Despite the framework provided by the CBD, biodiversity loss continues at alarming rates, exacerbated by climate change, deforestation, and over-exploitation of resources. The failure to fully achieve the Aichi Targets highlights the need for stronger commitments and action in the future.
Activity: Activity: Research a country that has signed the CBD and investigate its national biodiversity strategy
3.3.5 Habitat conservation strategies protect species by conservation of their natural environment. This may require protection of wild areas or active management.
- Define habitat conservation.
- List three strategies used in habitat conservation.
- Outline the role of marine protected areas in conserving biodiversity.
- Describe how wildlife corridors help maintain species diversity.
- Explain the benefits of habitat restoration for ecosystem recovery.
- Describe one example of an eco-sanctuary and its role in species recovery
Habitat conservation is a key aspect of biodiversity protection. By preserving and restoring the natural environments where species live, conservationists can help prevent species extinction, maintain ecological processes, and safeguard ecosystem services. Habitat conservation can take many forms, from creating protected areas to restoring degraded landscapes. The goal is to maintain healthy ecosystems that support biodiversity and provide resources and services for both wildlife and humans.
Protected Areas:
- Areas such as national parks and marine protected areas (MPAs) restrict human activities to preserve ecosystems. Kruger National Park in South Africa protects a wide range of wildlife, while the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park safeguards coral ecosystems from overfishing and pollution.
- Restoring ecosystems damaged by human activities, such as replanting native vegetation or rehabilitating wetlands, helps rebuild biodiversity and ecosystem functions. For instance, the Everglades Restoration Project in Florida focuses on restoring water flow to revive wetland ecosystems.
- Corridors connect fragmented habitats, allowing species to move freely for food and reproduction, reducing the risk of inbreeding. The Yellowstone to Yukon Corridor in North America ensures that species like grizzly bears can migrate across large landscapes.
- Predator-proof eco-sanctuaries create safe environments for endangered species. Zealandia Eco-Sanctuary in New Zealand is a fenced reserve that excludes invasive predators and allows the recovery of species like the little spotted kiwi.
- Practices like agroforestry and sustainable fisheries combine conservation with human use, supporting both biodiversity and local livelihoods. Buffer zones around protected areas help reduce the impact of human activities while allowing for sustainable development.
Examples of Habitat Conservation Strategies
- Great Barrier Reef Marine Park: A large marine protected area that limits harmful activities, supporting the recovery of coral reefs and marine biodiversity.
- Amazon Rainforest Reserves: Protect vast areas of the Amazon, providing refuge for species like jaguars and regulating the global climate by storing carbon.
- Yellowstone to Yukon Corridor: Connects fragmented habitats across the US and Canada, enabling species like wolves to migrate and maintain healthy populations.
- Zealandia Eco-Sanctuary: A fenced reserve that restores native species in an urban environment, providing a model for conservation in cities.
3.3.6 Effective conservation of biodiversity in nature reserves and national parks depends on an understanding of the biology of target species and on the effect of the size and shape of conservation areas.
- Define a biosphere reserve.
- List the three zones within a UNESCO biosphere reserve.
- Outline the importance of wildlife corridors in maintaining species connectivity.
- Describe how biosphere reserves balance conservation and human activity.
- Explain the significance of buffer zones in protecting core conservation areas.
Nature reserves and national parks play a critical role in biodiversity conservation by providing protected areas where ecosystems can function with minimal human interference. Effective conservation planning for these areas involves considering factors such as reserve size, shape, edge effects, and connectivity through wildlife corridors. Additionally, UNESCO biosphere reserves are exemplary models that integrate conservation with sustainable development through carefully managed zones.
Designing Protected Areas
Edge Effects:
Edge effects occur at the boundaries between protected areas and human-altered landscapes, where different environmental conditions like increased sunlight or exposure to invasive species can impact biodiversity. Minimizing edge effects is crucial for maintaining habitat quality, especially in smaller or fragmented reserves.
Edge Effects:
Edge effects occur at the boundaries between protected areas and human-altered landscapes, where different environmental conditions like increased sunlight or exposure to invasive species can impact biodiversity. Minimizing edge effects is crucial for maintaining habitat quality, especially in smaller or fragmented reserves.
- Example: In forest patches surrounded by agriculture, edge effects can degrade habitats, affecting species such as birds and small mammals.
Wildlife Corridors:
- Connectivity is vital for species to move across landscapes, ensuring access to food, mates, and migration routes. Wildlife corridors link fragmented habitats, reducing inbreeding and helping species adapt to environmental changes. Corridors are especially crucial for large carnivores that require extensive territories.
- Example: The Florida Wildlife Corridor, spanning nearly 18 million acres, is essential for the survival of many of Florida’s imperiled animals. Besides protecting wildlife, preserving these wild spaces helps mitigate climate change.
Single Large vs. Several Small Conservation Areas (SLOSS):
UNESCO Biosphere Reserves:
- Biosphere reserves are designated areas under UNESCO’s Man and the Biosphere Programme that focus on balancing biodiversity conservation with sustainable development. These reserves are divided into three zones:
- Core Area: A pristine zone where human activities are strictly limited to allow for the protection of biodiversity and ecosystems.
- Buffer Zone: Surrounding the core, this zone allows for activities like research, education, and some controlled land use that support conservation efforts without degrading the core.
- Transition Zone: The outermost zone, where sustainable development practices, such as agriculture, tourism, and resource extraction, are implemented in harmony with conservation goals.
Criteria that conservationists now use when planning a protected area or national park are:
Some reserves have buffer zones, which are areas around the core reserve which is transitional. Some farming, extraction of natural resources, e.g. selective logging can take place here. The core of the reserve (centre) is left undisturbed and organisms should be safer this way.
- Size: how large should it be to protect the species?
- Numbers: how many individuals of an endangered species must be protected?
- Fragmentation: Is it better to have one larger area or many smaller ones? A large reserve will contain sufficient numbers of wide-ranging species, minimize edge effects and provide more habitats for more species. But several smaller reserves that are well placed may be able to provide more diverse habitats for more diverse populations of rare species than a larger block.
- Edge effects: how to have more interior space per edge? More internal area away from human activities. Involves decreasing the circumference-to-area ration. Edge effects occur at ecotones (where two habitats meet and there is a change near the boundary). More species exist at ecotones as species from different habitats converge leading to increased predation and competition. Long thin reserves have a large edge effect while circular reserves have the least.
- Shape: What is the best shape? Often determined by physical features (e.g. mountains)
- Proximity: How close is it to other reserves? How close is it to humans or human activities?
- Corridors: Should reserves be joined by corridors? Corridors are strips of protected land which link reserves. These allow individuals to move freely from reserve to reserve and therefore increase the size of the gene pool and allow for seasonal migration. There are disadvantages as diseases are more easily spread and it makes hunting/poaching easier in these corridors, which are harder to protect than reserves.
Some reserves have buffer zones, which are areas around the core reserve which is transitional. Some farming, extraction of natural resources, e.g. selective logging can take place here. The core of the reserve (centre) is left undisturbed and organisms should be safer this way.
Benefits of the Biosphere Reserve Model:
- Minimization of Edge Effects: The large core area surrounded by buffer zones reduces edge effects, creating a stable environment for species sensitive to environmental changes and preserving habitat integrity.
- Connectivity Through Corridors: Biosphere reserves are often linked to other protected areas through wildlife corridors, promoting biodiversity by allowing species to migrate, maintain genetic diversity, and adapt to environmental pressures like climate change.
Community Involvement
One of the most critical and challenging criteria for a successful protected area is community involvement. If the community haven't been involved in the establishment of a protected area then it could fail. Removing local people, failing to provide alternatives or job creation can all create problems.
One of the most critical and challenging criteria for a successful protected area is community involvement. If the community haven't been involved in the establishment of a protected area then it could fail. Removing local people, failing to provide alternatives or job creation can all create problems.
Human Impacts and Management Strategies:
While biosphere reserves balance human activity with conservation, they still face challenges, including deforestation, habitat fragmentation, and climate change. In Montseny, management strategies include:
While biosphere reserves balance human activity with conservation, they still face challenges, including deforestation, habitat fragmentation, and climate change. In Montseny, management strategies include:
- Zoning Regulations: Strict regulations on land use prevent over-exploitation of resources within the buffer and transition zones, minimizing damage to the core area.
- Sustainable Development: Local communities are involved in sustainable agriculture and forestry, ensuring that economic activities do not degrade the environment.
- Ecotourism: Controlled tourism helps generate income while educating visitors on the importance of protecting the reserve's biodiversity.
Activity: Evaluate an example of a UNESCO biosphere reserve with high biodiversity and species of international conservation importance, including the designation of an appropriate area for conservation, potential human impacts and management strategies Focus on understanding the biodiversity, species of international importance, and the conservation zones of the reserve.
3.3.7 Natural processes in ecosystems can be regenerated by rewilding.
- Define rewilding.
- List two rewilding methods used to restore ecosystems.
- Outline the importance of reintroducing apex predators in rewilding projects.
- Describe how rewilding can reconnect fragmented habitats.
- Explain the challenges involved in minimizing human influence during rewilding efforts.
Rewilding is a conservation strategy focused on restoring natural ecosystems by reintroducing species, re-establishing habitat connectivity, and minimizing human impacts. It emphasizes the return of keystone species, which play essential roles in maintaining ecological balance, and aims to allow ecosystems to recover their natural processes with minimal human intervention. Rewilding can reverse biodiversity loss, restore ecosystem functions, and improve resilience to environmental changes such as climate change.
Rewilding Methods:
Reintroduction of Apex Predators and Keystone Species:
Reintroducing apex predators like wolves and keystone species such as beavers helps restore natural ecosystem dynamics. Apex predators regulate prey populations, while keystone species shape habitats, supporting biodiversity.
Example: In Yellowstone National Park, the reintroduction of wolves controlled elk populations, allowing vegetation like willows and aspens to recover. This supported the return of species such as beavers and songbirds, benefiting the entire ecosystem.
Reintroduction of Apex Predators and Keystone Species:
Reintroducing apex predators like wolves and keystone species such as beavers helps restore natural ecosystem dynamics. Apex predators regulate prey populations, while keystone species shape habitats, supporting biodiversity.
Example: In Yellowstone National Park, the reintroduction of wolves controlled elk populations, allowing vegetation like willows and aspens to recover. This supported the return of species such as beavers and songbirds, benefiting the entire ecosystem.
Re-establishment of Habitat Connectivity:
Restoring connectivity between fragmented habitats is essential for species to move, find food, and reproduce, ensuring genetic diversity and healthy populations. Wildlife corridors also make ecosystems more resilient to disturbances like climate change and human development.
Example: The Yellowstone to Yukon Corridor (Y2Y) connects protected areas across North America, allowing species like grizzly bears and wolves to move between habitats and maintain viable populations across large territories.
Restoring connectivity between fragmented habitats is essential for species to move, find food, and reproduce, ensuring genetic diversity and healthy populations. Wildlife corridors also make ecosystems more resilient to disturbances like climate change and human development.
Example: The Yellowstone to Yukon Corridor (Y2Y) connects protected areas across North America, allowing species like grizzly bears and wolves to move between habitats and maintain viable populations across large territories.
Cessation of Agriculture and Resource Harvesting:
Rewilding often involves halting intensive agriculture, logging, or resource extraction activities that have degraded ecosystems. By allowing the land to regenerate naturally, forests, wetlands, and grasslands can recover, providing habitat for wildlife and restoring ecological processes like nutrient cycling and water filtration.
Rewilding often involves halting intensive agriculture, logging, or resource extraction activities that have degraded ecosystems. By allowing the land to regenerate naturally, forests, wetlands, and grasslands can recover, providing habitat for wildlife and restoring ecological processes like nutrient cycling and water filtration.
- Example: In the Oostvaardersplassen rewilding project in the Netherlands, large areas of previously agricultural land were left to regenerate naturally, allowing native species such as red deer, Konik horses, and Heck cattle to shape the landscape through grazing.
Minimization of Human Influences Through Ecological Management:
Rewilding aims to minimize human intervention once key species and natural processes have been restored, allowing ecosystems to self-regulate. While limiting actions like controlled burning or animal population management, some areas may still require ongoing oversight for rewilding success.
Rewilding aims to minimize human intervention once key species and natural processes have been restored, allowing ecosystems to self-regulate. While limiting actions like controlled burning or animal population management, some areas may still require ongoing oversight for rewilding success.
- Example: The Knepp Estate in England adopted a hands-off rewilding approach, allowing natural processes like animal grazing and vegetation succession to occur. This has led to the return of species such as nightingales, turtle doves, and purple emperor butterflies
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Activity: Investigate the objectives and methods such as Hinewai Reserve in New Zealand, any other appropriate rewilding project or a local example.
3.3.8 Conservation and regeneration measures can be used to reverse the decline in biodiversity to ensure a safe operating space for humanity within the biodiversity planetary boundary.
- Define ecosystem regeneration.
- List two ways individuals can contribute to biodiversity conservation.
- Outline how national governments can protect biodiversity.
- Describe the role of community-based conservation in restoring ecosystems.
- Explain how international agreements support biodiversity conservation.
Conservation and regeneration efforts aim to protect and restore biodiversity, ensuring the stability of ecosystems and the continued provision of essential services. Biodiversity conservation can take place at multiple levels, from individual actions to large-scale international agreements. Each level plays a vital role in maintaining ecosystem integrity and promoting sustainable practices.
Measures at Different Levels:
Individual Level:
Collective Level:
Individual Level:
- Personal contributions, like habitat restoration or citizen science.
- Example: Planting native species in gardens, reducing plastic use to prevent pollution, and volunteering for habitat restoration projects are ways individuals can support biodiversity conservation.
Collective Level:
- Community projects, such as reforestation efforts.
- Example: The Green Belt Movement in Kenya mobilizes communities to plant trees, restore degraded lands, and raise awareness about the importance of environmental conservation. This grassroots movement has successfully reforested large areas and improved local ecosystems.
National Level:
International Level:
- Creating laws and policies that protect biodiversity. National parks, wildlife reserves, and environmental regulations, such as endangered species protections, are vital for safeguarding ecosystems.
- Example: Brazil's national strategy for the Amazon Rainforest includes the creation of protected areas and enforcement of anti-deforestation laws to preserve one of the world’s most biodiverse regions.
International Level:
- Global cooperation is essential for biodiversity conservation, particularly with transboundary challenges like climate change and species migration. International agreements like the CBD and Paris Agreement enable countries to collaborate on biodiversity protection and sustainable development by providing financial resources, shared knowledge, and global targets.
- Example: The CBD's Aichi Biodiversity Targets (2010–2020) aimed to reduce biodiversity loss and improve ecosystem protection worldwide. While progress varied, these targets shaped global conservation policies and led to the establishment of new protected areas.
Conservation of Biodiversity:
- Conservation aims to protect species and ecosystems from threats like habitat loss, pollution, and over-exploitation. This includes protected areas, wildlife laws, and preserving genetic diversity.
- Example: India’s Project Tiger establishes tiger reserves to protect Bengal tigers, safeguarding habitats and reducing poaching.
- Regeneration restores damaged ecosystems through actions like reforestation, wetland restoration, and removing invasive species. These efforts rebuild biodiversity and restore ecosystem functions.
- Example: Southeast Asian forest restoration projects replant native trees in logged areas, enhancing wildlife habitats and increasing carbon storage.
- Restoring ecosystems also revitalizes essential services like climate regulation, water filtration, and soil fertility, which support human survival.
- Example: Wetland restoration in the Mississippi River Delta improves water quality, provides flood protection, and sequesters carbon.
- Involving local communities in conservation fosters success by aligning strategies with their needs while protecting biodiversity.
- Example: China’s Loess Plateau Rehabilitation Project engaged local communities to restore eroded land, turning it into productive farmland and forests.
Challenges in Conservation and Regeneration
- Land Use Conflicts:
- Conservation and regeneration require large land areas, often conflicting with agriculture, urbanization, and resource extraction. Balancing these needs with local community interests is key for sustainable land use.
- Climate Change:
- Climate change complicates efforts by altering ecosystems through rising temperatures, shifting precipitation, and extreme weather. Conservation strategies must adapt to these changing conditions to remain effective.
- Funding and Political Will:
- Large-scale projects need substantial financial and political backing, which can be difficult in biodiversity-rich but resource-limited countries. International cooperation and funding are often essential for success.
Benefits of Conservation and Regeneration
- Biodiversity Protection:
Conservation and regeneration efforts protect species from extinction and maintain genetic diversity, which is essential for ecosystem stability. - Ecosystem Services:
Restored ecosystems provide critical services, such as water purification, carbon sequestration, and soil fertility, supporting human well-being and reducing vulnerability to natural disasters. - Climate Mitigation:
Conservation and regeneration help mitigate climate change by sequestering carbon in forests, wetlands, and grasslands, reducing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere.
Activity: Research a local conservation or regeneration project, such as habitat restoration or reforestation efforts. Research the goals, challenges, and outcomes of the project, including how it has impacted biodiversity and local communities.
3.3.9 Environmental perspectives and value systems can impact the choice of conservation strategies selected by a society.
- Define environmental justice in the context of conservation.
- List two ecocentric strategies for biodiversity conservation.
- Outline how anthropocentric perspectives can influence conservation approaches.
- Describe the role of community support in successful conservation projects.
- Explain the challenges of balancing environmental justice and conservation goals.
The protection and restoration of biodiversity require action at multiple scales—ranging from individual efforts to international collaboration. Each level of conservation and regeneration plays a distinct but interconnected role in addressing the challenges posed by habitat destruction, species extinction, and climate change. Comprehensive strategies ensure that biodiversity can thrive, providing resilience to ecosystems and human societies.
Key Success Factors in Conservation and Regeneration:
- Community Support: Engaging local communities in conservation ensures projects align with their needs and integrate local knowledge, leading to sustainability.
- Example: Namibia's community-based conservation allows locals to manage conservancies, benefiting from ecotourism revenue.
- Adequate Funding: Financial resources are crucial for sustaining conservation efforts like habitat restoration and protected area management.
- Example: The Global Environment Facility (GEF) funds biodiversity and conservation projects in developing countries.
- Education and Awareness: Public education fosters sustainable practices and community involvement in conservation.
- Example: Costa Rica's ecotourism promotes biodiversity awareness and stewardship among tourists and locals.
- Appropriate Legislation: Strong laws protect biodiversity and regulate resource use, ensuring legal support for conservation.
- Example: Brazil’s Forest Code mandates forest preservation on private lands, protecting Amazon biodiversity.
- Scientific Research: Research provides data on species and ecosystems, guiding interventions like species reintroduction and habitat restoration.
- Example: The UK’s Millennium Seed Bank preserves endangered plant species through genetic research.
Different Perspectives in Conservation:
- Ecocentric Approaches: Focus on the intrinsic value of ecosystems, advocating for low-intervention, in situ conservation methods like national parks and wildlife sanctuaries, allowing ecosystems to function with minimal human interference.
- Example: Rewilding in the Oostvaardersplassen, Netherlands, restores natural processes by reintroducing species and reducing human management.
- Anthropocentric/Technocentric Approaches: Emphasize the societal and economic value of biodiversity, using scientific interventions to balance species preservation with human interests through ex situ strategies like gene banks, zoos, and ecotourism.
- Example: Zoos, such as those working with the California condor, use captive breeding for species recovery, while ecotourism supports local economies and promotes conservation.
Environmental Justice in Conservation and Regeneration:
Environmental justice ensures conservation benefits are fairly distributed and marginalized communities are involved in decision-making. Projects should address historical inequities, such as the displacement of indigenous peoples, and work to prevent further social inequalities. Involving these communities in biodiversity management and sharing ecosystem service benefits is key to equitable, successful conservation.
Environmental justice ensures conservation benefits are fairly distributed and marginalized communities are involved in decision-making. Projects should address historical inequities, such as the displacement of indigenous peoples, and work to prevent further social inequalities. Involving these communities in biodiversity management and sharing ecosystem service benefits is key to equitable, successful conservation.
- Example: Indigenous groups managing the Amazon Rainforest blend traditional ecological knowledge with modern practices, contributing to biodiversity protection while safeguarding indigenous livelihoods.
Challenges in Conservation and Regeneration:
- Balancing Ecocentric and Anthropocentric Goals: Conservation must balance nature's intrinsic value with human needs. Ecocentric approaches emphasize minimal intervention, while anthropocentric strategies focus on economic benefits. Achieving this balance is key to long-term success.
- Environmental Justice and Inclusivity: Projects should ensure marginalized groups benefit from conservation and avoid displacing local communities. Including these stakeholders in management and decision-making is essential for equitable outcomes.
- Securing Long-Term Funding: Sustained funding is crucial for long-term conservation efforts. Many projects face financial challenges, especially where economic priorities conflict with conservation goals, requiring international cooperation and innovative financing models.
Benefits of Incorporating Multiple Approaches:
- Biodiversity Conservation: Utilizing both in situ and ex situ methods ensures ecosystems and species are effectively protected for future generations.
- Economic and Social Development: Projects that combine conservation with economic benefits, like ecotourism or sustainable resource use, support biodiversity while enhancing local livelihoods, promoting long-term sustainability.
- Resilience to Environmental Change: Integrating scientific research, local knowledge, legal frameworks, and community involvement makes conservation efforts more adaptable and resilient to challenges like climate change and habitat loss.
Examples of Conservation and Regeneration Projects
Namibia’s Communal Conservancies:
Namibia’s Communal Conservancies:
- Namibia’s approach to community-based conservation empowers local populations to manage wildlife and natural resources. These communal conservancies generate income through ecotourism, hunting concessions, and sustainable resource use, which directly benefits the local communities. This model not only protects biodiversity but also addresses social and economic needs, creating a balance between conservation and human development.
- The Oostvaardersplassen is a low-intervention rewilding project that focuses on restoring natural processes by reintroducing species such as red deer and Konik horses. This ecocentric approach aims to recreate a self-sustaining ecosystem where minimal human intervention is required. The project has attracted significant attention for its hands-off approach to conservation.
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3.3.10 Success in conserving and restoring biodiversity by international, governmental and non-governmental organizations depends on their use of media, speed of response, diplomatic constraints, financial resources and political influence.
- Define the role of international organizations in biodiversity conservation.
- List two examples of how NGOs contribute to global conservation efforts.
- Outline the challenges that governmental organizations face in enforcing environmental laws.
- Describe the difference between ecocentric and anthropocentric approaches to conservation.
- Explain how environmental justice is important in biodiversity conservation.
Biodiversity conservation requires coordinated efforts across various levels—international, governmental, and non-governmental organizations (NGOs). Each of these entities plays a specific role in setting agendas, implementing policies, and providing funding or expertise. The success of conservation efforts depends on incorporating a diversity of approaches, including community support, scientific research, adequate funding, education, and appropriate legislation. Additionally, conservation must address issues of environmental justice to ensure that benefits are equitably shared. Different perspectives, from ecocentric to anthropocentric, influence how organizations approach conservation.
International Organizations:
International organizations establish global biodiversity standards, facilitate cooperation, and provide funding for conservation, addressing issues like climate change, species migration, and trade in endangered species.
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD):
CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species):
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP):
International organizations establish global biodiversity standards, facilitate cooperation, and provide funding for conservation, addressing issues like climate change, species migration, and trade in endangered species.
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD):
- The CBD is a key treaty for biodiversity conservation, setting global targets (e.g., Aichi Targets) and promoting National Biodiversity Strategies. It emphasizes sustainable resource use, ecosystem conservation, and fair sharing of genetic resources.
- Example: The CBD supports cooperation on invasive species and habitat loss, helping countries align with global conservation standards.
CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species):
- CITES regulates the trade of endangered species to prevent over-exploitation, ensuring that international trade does not threaten species survival.
- Example: CITES has been vital in regulating ivory trade, protecting elephants from poaching, and curbing illegal rhinoceros horn trade.
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP):
- UNEP coordinates global environmental efforts and supports biodiversity agreements like the CBD, offering scientific advice, funding, and policy support.
- Example: UNEP’s Global Environment Facility (GEF) funds biodiversity projects in developing countries, helping nations meet their conservation goals.
Governmental Organizations:
Governmental organizations develop and enforce biodiversity policies at national and regional levels, managing protected areas, enforcing laws, and regulating resource use to conserve biodiversity.
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS):
Brazilian Institute of Environment and Renewable Natural Resources (IBAMA):
Indian Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC):
Governmental organizations develop and enforce biodiversity policies at national and regional levels, managing protected areas, enforcing laws, and regulating resource use to conserve biodiversity.
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS):
- USFWS manages the National Wildlife Refuge System and enforces the Endangered Species Act, focusing on recovering endangered species and restoring habitats.
- Example: The USFWS played a key role in recovering the California condor through captive breeding and habitat protection.
Brazilian Institute of Environment and Renewable Natural Resources (IBAMA):
- IBAMA enforces environmental regulations in Brazil, focusing on reducing deforestation and protecting the Amazon Rainforest.
- Example: IBAMA’s efforts have been crucial in slowing deforestation in the Amazon, home to over 10% of global biodiversity.
Indian Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC):
- MoEFCC implements India’s biodiversity strategies, managing protected areas and endangered species conservation.
- Example: Project Tiger, led by MoEFCC, has created tiger reserves across India, boosting Bengal tiger populations and reducing poaching.
Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs):
NGOs are crucial in conservation through awareness-raising, research, policy advocacy, and project management. They collaborate with governments and international organizations to implement biodiversity strategies.
World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF):
NGOs are crucial in conservation through awareness-raising, research, policy advocacy, and project management. They collaborate with governments and international organizations to implement biodiversity strategies.
World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF):
- WWF is a leading global conservation organization, focusing on endangered species, habitat protection, and environmental threats like climate change.
- Example: WWF’s Global Tiger Initiative partners with 13 countries to double tiger populations through habitat restoration and anti-poaching measures.
- CI focuses on biodiversity hotspots, sustainable development, and ecosystem conservation, working closely with local communities.
- Example: CI collaborates with communities in Madagascar’s Rainforest to protect biodiversity, promote sustainable agriculture, and support ecotourism.
- TNC protects vital lands and waters using science-based conservation, often partnering with private landowners and governments.
- Example: In the Coral Triangle, TNC promotes sustainable fishing, habitat restoration, and pollution reduction to protect one of the world’s most biodiverse marine ecosystems.
Success in conserving and restoring biodiversity by organisations depends on their use of media, speed of response, diplomatic constraints, financial resources and political influence.
Activity: Select one IGO, GO and NGOs to research. Analyze their success in conserving and restoring biodiversity
- Use of media
- Speed of response
- Diplomatic constraints
- financial resources
- Political influence.
3.2.11 Positive feedback loops that enhance biodiversity and promote ecosystem equilibrium can be triggered by rewilding and habitat restoration efforts.
- Define the role of community-based conservation in supporting local ecosystems.
- List two ways enhanced species growth impacts food webs.
- Outline how local habitat restoration can improve species survival.
- Describe the importance of biomass in maintaining ecosystem stability.
- Explain the impact of conservation on food web interactions at the community level.
At the community level, conservation efforts often trigger positive feedback loops that enhance biodiversity and promote ecosystem stability. Rewilding and habitat restoration, in particular, can initiate processes that lead to the recovery of degraded ecosystems and support alternative stable states.
A positive feedback loop occurs when an initial change, such as the reintroduction of native species or the restoration of natural habitats, leads to subsequent ecological improvements. For example, the recovery of plant biomass in a rewilded area can support greater species diversity, which, in turn, promotes more stable and resilient ecosystems. These loops are crucial for the recovery of ecosystems and are often necessary for shifting ecosystems from a degraded state to a more biodiverse and sustainable one.
A positive feedback loop occurs when an initial change, such as the reintroduction of native species or the restoration of natural habitats, leads to subsequent ecological improvements. For example, the recovery of plant biomass in a rewilded area can support greater species diversity, which, in turn, promotes more stable and resilient ecosystems. These loops are crucial for the recovery of ecosystems and are often necessary for shifting ecosystems from a degraded state to a more biodiverse and sustainable one.
Role of Enhanced Growth and Biomass:
Increased plant and animal biomass provides the foundation for a more complex and robust ecosystem. For example, when plant species recover, they create habitats for other organisms, improve soil health, and enhance nutrient cycling. These processes increase the overall resilience of ecosystems and improve their ability to withstand disturbances.
Increased plant and animal biomass provides the foundation for a more complex and robust ecosystem. For example, when plant species recover, they create habitats for other organisms, improve soil health, and enhance nutrient cycling. These processes increase the overall resilience of ecosystems and improve their ability to withstand disturbances.
- Reproduction and Survival of Species:
- As species reproduce and their populations grow, the positive feedback loops become stronger. Higher survival rates among species contribute to greater biodiversity, which in turn enhances the ecosystem’s ability to sustain itself. This is especially important in food web interactions, where each species plays a critical role in maintaining the balance between predators, prey, and producers.
- Food Web Interactions:
- As biodiversity increases through conservation efforts, so does the complexity of food webs. This complexity strengthens ecosystem equilibrium, as species interactions become more balanced. For instance, the reintroduction of a predator species can control herbivore populations, preventing overgrazing and allowing vegetation to recover, which benefits the entire food web.
Challenges and Considerations:
- Resource Competition and Overharvesting:
At the community level, balancing resource use with conservation is critical. Overharvesting of fish or wildlife can disrupt local food webs and reduce the survival and reproduction rates of key species. Conservation measures must ensure that human activities are sustainable. - Education and Capacity Building:
Community conservation efforts are most successful when local people understand the importance of biodiversity and are equipped with the knowledge and resources to protect their ecosystems. Education programs help raise awareness of how food web interactions are affected by species survival and growth. - Climate Change Impacts:
Changing climate conditions can alter the growth, reproduction, and survival rates of species, leading to shifts in food web dynamics. Communities may need to adapt their conservation efforts to address these environmental changes, ensuring that key species continue to thrive.
Benefits of Community-Level Conservation:
- Increased Biodiversity:
Local conservation and regeneration efforts can directly enhance species diversity, leading to more complex and resilient food webs. - Ecosystem Stability:
By focusing on species growth and survival, communities can create more stable ecosystems that are better able to resist disturbances, such as invasive species or environmental changes. - Sustainable Resource Use:
Engaging communities in conservation ensures that local resources, such as forests, fisheries, and wildlife, are managed sustainably, preserving biodiversity while supporting livelihoods.
Community-Based Conservation Examples:
- The Maasai Mara Conservancies (Kenya):
In the Maasai Mara, community-led conservation has allowed local people to manage wildlife conservancies, where they protect species such as lions and elephants. By conserving these keystone species, the community ensures the stability of the food web. Large herbivores, like elephants, maintain open grasslands for other herbivores, while carnivores regulate herbivore populations. - Papua New Guinea Coral Reef Conservation:
Local communities in Papua New Guinea have implemented marine conservation areas to protect coral reefs and fish populations. These efforts have led to the recovery of fish species and increased biomass in marine food webs. The restored coral ecosystems provide breeding grounds for fish, which enhances the entire food web, from herbivorous fish to top predators.
3.3.12 Rewilding projects have both benefits and limitations.
- Define rewilding.
- List two benefits of rewilding projects.
- Outline the limitations of rewilding, particularly in relation to land-use conflicts.
- Describe the role of rewilding in enhancing ecosystem services.
- Explain the challenges of balancing food production and rewilding in conservation efforts.
Rewilding projects are designed to restore natural processes and habitats by reintroducing native species and allowing ecosystems to recover with minimal human intervention. While rewilding offers significant environmental benefits, it also faces challenges, especially regarding land-use conflicts, such as food production versus space for rewilding. The balance between conservation goals and human needs, such as agriculture, is a key issue in the success of rewilding initiatives.
Benefits and Limitations of Rewilding Projects
Land-Use Issues: Food Production vs. Rewilding:
A key challenge for rewilding is balancing land use between food production and conservation. As global populations grow, the demand for agricultural land increases, sparking debates over whether rewilding or farming should take priority.
Rewilding on Marginal Lands:
A key challenge for rewilding is balancing land use between food production and conservation. As global populations grow, the demand for agricultural land increases, sparking debates over whether rewilding or farming should take priority.
Rewilding on Marginal Lands:
- Rewilding can focus on marginal lands that are no longer suitable for agriculture, allowing biodiversity restoration without threatening food security.
- Rewilding can also be integrated with sustainable agriculture practices, such as agroforestry or silvopasture, which enhance biodiversity while supporting food production.
Challenges and Success Factors:
Balancing Land Use:
Balancing Land Use:
- Rewilding success depends on balancing land for conservation and food production. Land-sharing approaches, where agriculture and conservation coexist, can offer solutions.
- Involving local communities in decision-making, providing economic benefits, and addressing concerns like human-wildlife conflict are key for long-term sustainability.
- Ongoing monitoring and adaptive management are essential to assess ecological impacts and ensure the lasting benefits of rewilding projects.
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Activity: Creating a rewilding causal loop diagram
Application of skills: Use secondary data from databases to assess the success of a rewilding project. Use questionnaires to assess the impact of ecotourism or the values that it promotes.
3.3.13 The success of conservation or regeneration measures needs to be assessed.
- Define the key factors that influence the success of community-based conservation projects.
- List three ways conservation measures can impact local communities.
- Outline how reforestation projects can balance biodiversity protection and local needs.
- Describe the role of community involvement in the success of conservation projects.
- Explain how the success of a conservation strategy can be evaluated at three levels.
Conservation strategies often aim to protect biodiversity and restore ecosystems while considering the socio-economic context of local communities. Successful conservation projects are typically evaluated on multiple levels, assessing whether they meet their ecological goals, how they are received by local populations, and whether they represent the best approach to biodiversity conservation. Understanding the impact of these projects is crucial in shaping future conservation efforts and ensuring they align with both environmental and human needs.
Claims of Conservation Success:
Conservation measures have succeeded in various parts of the world by restoring ecosystems, protecting endangered species, and improving ecosystem services. However, these projects must also consider the human dimension, particularly the effects on local communities who often rely on natural resources for their livelihoods
Conservation measures have succeeded in various parts of the world by restoring ecosystems, protecting endangered species, and improving ecosystem services. However, these projects must also consider the human dimension, particularly the effects on local communities who often rely on natural resources for their livelihoods
Evaluating Conservation Success at Three Levels:
- Did the measures achieve their goals?
- Evaluates if conservation measures restored biodiversity, increased species populations, and improved ecosystem health with measurable results.
- Was the project well-received by communities?
- Assesses community engagement, benefits like sustainable livelihoods, and the project's ability to avoid displacing people, leading to long-term sustainability.
- Was this the best approach to conservation?
- Considers if the chosen approach was the most suitable, comparing it to alternatives in terms of ecological, social, and economic effectiveness and sustainability.
Impact on Local Communities:
Conservation measures can have profound effects on local communities, both positive and negative. Projects that prioritize local involvement and provide sustainable livelihoods tend to be more successful. On the other hand, conservation efforts that exclude or displace local people can create social tensions and undermine long-term goals. The key to balancing conservation and human needs is integrating communities into the planning and implementation stages of the project.
Conservation measures can have profound effects on local communities, both positive and negative. Projects that prioritize local involvement and provide sustainable livelihoods tend to be more successful. On the other hand, conservation efforts that exclude or displace local people can create social tensions and undermine long-term goals. The key to balancing conservation and human needs is integrating communities into the planning and implementation stages of the project.
- Positive Impacts:
- Employment opportunities through conservation work (e.g., tree planting, park rangers).
- Sustainable livelihoods through agroforestry, ecotourism, or sustainable agriculture.
- Improved access to natural resources (e.g., clean water, non-timber forest products).
- Challenges:
- Potential loss of land for agricultural use, leading to economic hardships.
- Human-wildlife conflict in areas where rewilding introduces predators or large herbivores.
- Insufficient consultation or exclusion from decision-making, leading to resistance from local populations.
Success Factors in Conservation Projects:
- Community Engagement:
Projects that involve local communities in decision-making and provide tangible benefits are more likely to succeed. For example, the Green Belt Movement in Kenya empowered women by providing them with opportunities to participate in environmental restoration, thereby gaining strong community support. - Sustainable Livelihoods:
Successful projects provide alternative income sources, such as sustainable agriculture or ecotourism, ensuring that conservation goals align with the economic needs of local populations. In Gorongosa National Park, Mozambique, rewilding efforts are complemented by sustainable farming practices that support both conservation and community well-being. - Long-Term Sustainability:
Projects need to consider long-term ecological and social impacts, ensuring that the benefits of conservation are sustained over time. This requires ongoing monitoring, community involvement, and adaptation to changing environmental conditions.
Activity: Select a local or regional conservation project or one of the following examples
- Willie Smits’ Rainforest Restoration Project (Kalimantan and Sulawesi, Indonesia)
- Wangari Maathai’s Green Belt Movement (Kenya)
- Steve Elliot’s FORRU-CMU (Southeast Asia)
- Write an evaluation of the project’s success based on the three levels of assessment:
- Did the project meet its biodiversity and ecological goals?
- How did the local communities respond to the project, and were they involved in the process?
- Was this the most effective method for conserving nature, or could other approaches have been better?
3.3.14 Ecotourism can increase interdependence of local communities and increase biodiversity by generating income and providing funds for protecting areas, but there can also be negative societal and ecological impacts.
- Define ecotourism and its role in conservation.
- List two benefits of ecotourism for biodiversity conservation.
- Outline the challenges associated with ecotourism in protected areas.
- Describe how ecotourism can support community-based conservation efforts.
- Explain how ecotourism can help balance conservation with local economic development, using Gorongosa National Park as an example.
Ecotourism is a form of sustainable tourism focused on the conservation of natural environments and the well-being of local communities. It often occurs in protected areas, where the income generated from tourism is reinvested into conservation efforts and local development. Ecotourism can serve as a key strategy for balancing biodiversity conservation with economic growth, but it must be carefully managed to prevent negative impacts on the environment and communities.
Funding for Conservation:
- Ecotourism generates revenue that supports biodiversity conservation, including wildlife protection and habitat restoration.
- Example: In Gorongosa National Park, ecotourism funds rewilding, anti-poaching patrols, and wildlife monitoring, helping the park recover from degradation.
- Ecotourism provides employment and income for local communities, fostering local support for conservation efforts.
- Example: In Costa Rica’s Monteverde Cloud Forest Reserve, ecotourism has created jobs while promoting the protection of the forest and its species.
- Ecotourism raises awareness about conservation, educating tourists on biodiversity and environmental protection.
- Example: In Galápagos National Park, ecotourism educates visitors on the importance of protecting the islands' fragile ecosystems while supporting conservation initiatives.
Challenges and Considerations:
Ecotourism in Gorongosa National Park (Mozambique)Overview:
Gorongosa National Park is a prime example of how ecotourism can support conservation and community development. After decades of civil war that devastated the park's wildlife, Gorongosa has undergone a remarkable restoration, driven in part by ecotourism. The park’s rewilding efforts have included restocking large herbivores and predators, which has helped restore the natural balance of the ecosystem.
Ecotourism Activities:
Conservation Success:
Ecotourism in Gorongosa has been vital in funding wildlife monitoring, anti-poaching operations, and habitat restoration. It has also raised awareness of the park’s unique biodiversity, helping to attract international attention and support. Additionally, it has provided significant economic benefits to local communities, contributing to their support for the park’s long-term conservation goals.
Gorongosa National Park is a prime example of how ecotourism can support conservation and community development. After decades of civil war that devastated the park's wildlife, Gorongosa has undergone a remarkable restoration, driven in part by ecotourism. The park’s rewilding efforts have included restocking large herbivores and predators, which has helped restore the natural balance of the ecosystem.
Ecotourism Activities:
- Safari Tours: Visitors can participate in guided safaris to view wildlife such as elephants, lions, and antelopes, with proceeds supporting conservation efforts.
- Eco-lodges: The park’s eco-lodges offer accommodations for tourists while minimizing environmental impact through sustainable practices like solar power and waste management.
- Community Involvement: Ecotourism provides jobs for local people as guides, lodge staff, and rangers, integrating conservation efforts with community development.
Conservation Success:
Ecotourism in Gorongosa has been vital in funding wildlife monitoring, anti-poaching operations, and habitat restoration. It has also raised awareness of the park’s unique biodiversity, helping to attract international attention and support. Additionally, it has provided significant economic benefits to local communities, contributing to their support for the park’s long-term conservation goals.
Activity: Choose an ecotourism project from a specific region. Research how ecotourism has benefited local communities and protected biodiversity. Identify any negative societal or ecological impacts that have occurred.
- How does this project balance the economic, societal, and environmental needs?
- Suggest improvements to make the ecotourism project more sustainable in the long term.
- Consider the following: Can ecotourism ever be fully sustainable, or are there inherent trade-offs that must be managed carefully?
Key Terms
Stewardship
Seed bank In situ Conservation biology Ecotones CBD Rewilding HL ONLY UNEP NGOs WWF Greenpeace IUCN Ecotourism |
CITE
Preservation biology Botanical garden Ex situ Protected areas Bioreserves Ecosanctuary |
Captive breeding
Reserve Captive breeding Keystone species Zoo Buffer zones Gradual edge |
Reintroduction
Flagship species Habitat-based Mixed approach SLOSS Scale Edge effect Corridors Ecotone |
Classroom Materials
Subtopic 3.3 Conservation and Regeneration Presentation.pptx | |
File Size: | 23601 kb |
File Type: | pptx |
Subtopic 3.3 Conservation and Regeneration Workbook.docx | |
File Size: | 128 kb |
File Type: | docx |
Strength and Weakness of Conservation programs handout
Resources and Their Exploitation project
Protected Area Case Studies worksheet
SeaWorld responds to questions about captive orcas article
CITES: solving the extinction crisis article
Do Corridors Have Value in Conservation Case Study
Captive breeding case studies from National Geographic
Suffering unseen: The dark truth behind wildlife tourism from National Geographic
Case Studies
- One detailed case study evaluating the success of a protected area
- Examples of named keystone and charismatic species
Powerpoint and Notes Adapted from Brad Kremer, P Brooks and Ms. McCrindle
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Correct use of terminology is a key skill in ESS. It is essential to use key terms correctly when communicating your understanding, particularly in assessments. Use the quizlet flashcards or other tools such as learn, scatter, space race, speller and test to help you master the vocabulary.
Useful Links
Science Sauce Topic 3.4 Shape of Nature Reserves
Preserving Biodiversity - National Geographic
Habitat Preservation - Wildlife Research
Quizlet Values of Biodiversity
IUCN Global Protection Project
Man and The Biosphere Program - UNESCO
The SLOSS Debate - About.com
CITE
In The News
A Plan to Save Wildlife May Have Done More Harm Than Good - Atlantic, Nov 2020
Should we cull one species to save another? - Guardian June 2020
Illegal wildlife trade campaign enlists tourists - BBC May 2016
Conservation of Biodiversity - Knowledge Project Carol Ann Kearns (Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Colorado at Boulder) © 2010 Nature Education
Traffic Noise is Bad for Foraging Bats - BBC Science News 17 Nov 2010 (noise pollution)
Citation: Kearns, C. (2010) Conservation of Biodiversity. Nature Education Knowledge 3(10):
New study questions 'biodiversity hotspot' approach to wildlife conservation - Stanford News 17 Jan 2007
Species vs ecosystems: save the tiger or focus on the bigger issues? - Ecologist 20 Jan 2011
What is the point in preserving endangered species that have no practical use to humans, apart from their aesthetic appeal or their intellectual interest to biologists? - Scientific America Oct 21, 1999
- International-mindedness:
TOK:
- This topic raises some engaging issues of debate concerning the moral justification for exploiting species and the moral imperative for conserving them.
- Do other organisms have a right to moral consideration? How is this justified?
- Do panda bears have a greater right than lichens? What about the rights of “pest” or pathogenic organisms?
- To what extent are these arguments based upon emotion and to what extent upon reason? And how does this affect their validity?
Video Clips
Malawi was recently exposed as a transit route and distribution hub for ivory traffickers and has been implicated in the biggest ivory seizures of all time. But it’s not just organised criminal syndicates that are exploiting the nation. Over 90 ivory cases have been recorded in the last 5 years.
In this film, H.E. President Peter Mutharika leads Ambassadors, High Commissioners and Honorary Consuls to call on all citizens, residents and visitors to say no to ivory trade. Missions backing the initiative are Belgium, Brazil, China, Egypt, Germany, Great Britain, India, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Mozambique, Korea, South Africa, Spain, Tanzania, the United States of America and Zambia. Belgium, Mozambique, and Italy have also pledged their support..
This film was put together by the Malawi Government, Lilongwe Wildlife Fund with the help of Bishop Mackenzie International School.
In this film, H.E. President Peter Mutharika leads Ambassadors, High Commissioners and Honorary Consuls to call on all citizens, residents and visitors to say no to ivory trade. Missions backing the initiative are Belgium, Brazil, China, Egypt, Germany, Great Britain, India, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Mozambique, Korea, South Africa, Spain, Tanzania, the United States of America and Zambia. Belgium, Mozambique, and Italy have also pledged their support..
This film was put together by the Malawi Government, Lilongwe Wildlife Fund with the help of Bishop Mackenzie International School.
CITES, the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, helps to ensure the survival of threatened species of plants and animals on a global level. This video outlines how CITES accomplishes this via its Three Appendix system. If you are interested in pet husbandry, botany, and conservation, this brief overview of CITES policy may help to advance your hobby.
World Wildlife Fund
The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) is an international institution (a programme, rather than an agency of the UN) that coordinates United Nations environmental activities, assisting developing countries in implementing environmentally sound policies and practices. It was founded as a result of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment in June 1972 and has its headquarters in the Gigiri neighborhood of Nairobi, Kenya. Its activities cover a wide range of issues regarding the atmosphere, marine and terrestrial ecosystems, environmental governance and green economy.
We are passionate about protecting the Earth -- the only life support system we have. And we will take peaceful, direct action to protect this fragile planet and promote the solutions for a green and peaceful future.
3 March, the day of the adoption of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), as World Wildlife Day, which proposed by Thailand, to celebrate and raise awareness of the world’s wild fauna and flora. -
Discover more about the importance of plants to our lives and how the Millennium Seed Bank Partnership is helping to save wild plants and habitats for our future.
Our planet was once populated by megafauna, big top-of-the-food-chain predators that played their part in balancing our ecosystems.
By piecing together a complex ecological puzzle, biologist Willie Smits believes he has found a way to re-grow clearcut rainforest in Borneo, saving local orangutans -- and creating a thrilling blueprint for restoring fragile ecosystems.
The Endangered Species Act of 1973 is by far the most significant piece of endangered species legislation and is considered one of the world's most important conservation laws.
Hank wraps up the Crash Course on ecology by taking a look at the growing fields of conservation biology and restoration ecology, which use all the kung fu moves we've learned about in the past eleven weeks and apply them to protecting ecosystems and to cleaning up the messes that we've already made.
The Banc d'Arguin National Park, a World Heritage marine site in Mauritania, is one of the largest protected areas in West Africa, supported under the "Tides of Time" Partnership between Jaeger-LeCoultre, The International Herald Tribune and UNESCO World Heritage Center.
Andrew Currie discusses the importance of the preservation of wildlife now, and in the future
Wildlife Management Areas (WMAs), which are community owned and managed conservation areas, have emerged as the best hope for mitigating human-wildlife conflict outside protected areas