subtopic 5.2: agriculture and food
The food systems that humans depend on for survival follow the same paths and rules as all ecological food chain. All food chains conform to both the first and second laws of thermodynamics.
World food production differences in productivity and distribution around the world. Socio‑political, economic
and ecological influences can have a significantly effect on the global food supply.
In this unit we will look at the global food supply and how agriculture exerts a set of impacts upon the environment.
This unit is a minimum of 6 hours.
World food production differences in productivity and distribution around the world. Socio‑political, economic
and ecological influences can have a significantly effect on the global food supply.
In this unit we will look at the global food supply and how agriculture exerts a set of impacts upon the environment.
This unit is a minimum of 6 hours.
Guiding questions:
- To what extent can the production of food be considered sustainable?
Understanding
Finite Land and Population Growth
5.2.1: Land is a finite resource, and the human population continues to increase and require feeding
- List two factors contributing to the rise in global food demand.
Outline the environmental impacts of deforestation and carbon emissions related to food production
Explain how the increased need for food production by 2050 can impact the global ecosystem.
- Agriculture currently uses approximately 70% of ice-free land for crops and livestock production, but not all land is suitable for agriculture due to factors like steepness, dryness, or nutrient-poor soils.
- The concept of sustainable intensification focuses on producing more food on the same amount of land while reducing environmental impacts, balancing the need for increased production with the need to protect ecosystems.
- Land-use changes, such as deforestation for agriculture, result in biodiversity loss and contribute to climate change by releasing stored carbon and reducing the Earth's capacity to sequester it..
- The United Nations projects that as global population grows, so does the demand for food. It is projected that food production from plants and animals will need to increase by 70% by 2050, compared to 2009 levels, to meet the rising demand for food.
- However, the expansion of food production is already contributing significantly to environmental degradation. It accounts for nearly one-third of global carbon emissions and is responsible for 90% of global deforestation.
Activity: Investigate the effects of land-use change on ecosystems in your region. Identify examples of how urbanization has impacted local biodiversity, and propose possible solutions for sustainable land use.
5.2.2 Marginalized groups are more vulnerable if their needs are not taken into account in land-use decisions.
- Define what is meant by a marginalized group in the context of agriculture. (2 marks)
- Outline two ways that the exclusion of marginalized groups from land-use decision-making affects food security.
- Explain how land rights for marginalized groups contribute to food sovereignty and sustainable agriculture.
Groups, including indigenous peoples, women, smallholder farmers, and low-income communities, often rely heavily on local land and natural resources for their livelihoods, food, and cultural practices. These groups are frequently left out of land-use planning and decision-making processes, making them more vulnerable to the impacts of land degradation, displacement, and food insecurity.
Land-use decisions are often made at higher levels of government or by corporations, focusing on large-scale agriculture, mining, or infrastructure development, without considering the local knowledge or needs of marginalized groups. As a result, these groups face challenges such as restricted access to land, loss of traditional food systems, and reduced resilience to environmental changes.
Land-use decisions are often made at higher levels of government or by corporations, focusing on large-scale agriculture, mining, or infrastructure development, without considering the local knowledge or needs of marginalized groups. As a result, these groups face challenges such as restricted access to land, loss of traditional food systems, and reduced resilience to environmental changes.
- Indigenous knowledge and traditional practices of land stewardship often promote sustainable use of natural resources and can help maintain biodiversity, soil fertility, and water resources. However, when marginalized communities are excluded, their valuable ecological knowledge is ignored, which can lead to unsustainable land-use practices and further environmental degradation.
- Gender inequality in land ownership and land rights is also a significant issue. Women, who play a critical role in food production, particularly in subsistence farming, often have limited access to land, making it harder for them to contribute to agricultural decision-making and sustainable development.
- A more inclusive approach to land-use planning, which respects the land rights of marginalized groups and incorporates their knowledge and needs, can lead to more equitable and sustainable outcomes. This includes ensuring access to land for small-scale farmers, recognizing indigenous land rights, and involving marginalized communities in policy decisions.
- Land-use conflicts often arise between marginalized groups and large-scale industrial agriculture or resource extraction projects. These conflicts can lead to displacement, loss of biodiversity, and food insecurity, which disproportionately impact marginalized communities.
Standing Rock Sioux Tribe and the Dakota Access Pipeline (DAPL)
The Standing Rock Sioux Tribe, located in North and South Dakota, has a deep cultural and environmental connection to the Missouri River. In 2016, the construction of the Dakota Access Pipeline (DAPL) was approved to transport oil across several U.S. states, with its route planned to pass under the Missouri River near the Standing Rock Reservation. The tribe argued that the pipeline threatened their primary water source and sacred lands, but construction proceeded despite their opposition.
Denial of Land Rights
The tribe contended they were not properly consulted, violating their rights and leading to widespread protests. The pipeline’s construction endangered not only their access to clean water but also the tribe’s traditional practices tied to the land.
Impact on Sustainability and the Environment
Proposed Inclusion in Land-Use Decision Making
Denial of Land Rights
The tribe contended they were not properly consulted, violating their rights and leading to widespread protests. The pipeline’s construction endangered not only their access to clean water but also the tribe’s traditional practices tied to the land.
Impact on Sustainability and the Environment
- Economic and Environmental Sustainability: The tribe’s economic reliance on clean water for agriculture and daily needs was jeopardized, with the risk of oil spills affecting water quality. The environmental threat to local ecosystems also disrupted their ability to maintain cultural and natural stewardship of the land.
Proposed Inclusion in Land-Use Decision Making
- Legal Recognition: Strengthen legal protections to require thorough consultation and consent from indigenous groups before approving projects on their land.
- Co-management: Implement shared governance of land between indigenous communities and the government.
- Stronger International Protections: Reinforce global frameworks like the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples to ensure better inclusion in decision-making processes.
Land Use Challenges and Agricultural Systems
5.2.3 World agriculture produces enough food to feed eight billion people, but the food is not equitably distributed and much is wasted or lost in distribution.
- List four major causes of food waste at different stages of the food supply chain.
- Define food security in the context of global agriculture.
- Outline the main reasons for the inequitable distribution of food in the global food system.
Despite the fact that global agriculture produces enough food to feed more than eight billion people, a significant portion of the population remains food insecure. This imbalance is largely due to issues of inequitable distribution and food waste rather than an overall lack of food production
Food insecurity is exacerbated by global inequalities in access to land, water, and agricultural resources. Regions experiencing conflict, poverty, and climate change are especially vulnerable to food insecurity, as they struggle to produce or import enough food to meet the needs of their populations.
Food insecurity is exacerbated by global inequalities in access to land, water, and agricultural resources. Regions experiencing conflict, poverty, and climate change are especially vulnerable to food insecurity, as they struggle to produce or import enough food to meet the needs of their populations.
Food distribution systems often favor wealthier countries and regions, where food is in abundance and more affordable. In contrast, many developing countries lack the infrastructure or financial means to access and distribute food effectively, leading to hunger and malnutrition.
Causes of imbalance food distribution
- Ecological: some climate and soils are better for food production
- Economic: advance technology and money can overcome ecological limitation (transportation of water)
- Socio-political: underinvestment in rural area and rapid area in LEDC; poor human health weaken available labor force
Economic
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Socio political
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Ecological
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The United Nations Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 12 calls for a 50% reduction in global food waste by 2030. Achieving this goal would improve food security while reducing the environmental impact of food production. Reducing food waste also helps to conserve resources such as water, land, and energy, which are used in food production and transportation.
- Addressing food waste and improving distribution systems is a key strategy for enhancing global food security. For example, improving storage facilities, investing in cold chain logistics, and introducing innovative packaging solutions can significantly reduce post-harvest food losses. Additionally, campaigns aimed at consumer awareness in wealthier countries can help reduce household-level food waste.
- Solving the global food distribution challenge requires a multifaceted approach, including investment in sustainable agricultural practices, improving transportation and storage infrastructure in developing countries, and shifting consumer behaviors to reduce waste in more affluent societies.
- There is also a need to address the environmental impact of food production and waste. Food waste contributes to about 8-10% of global greenhouse gas emissions, primarily due to the methane produced when organic matter decomposes in landfills. Additionally, when food is wasted, all the resources used to produce it, such as water and land, are also wasted, increasing the ecological footprint of food systems.
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- Food waste occurs throughout the entire food supply chain, from production to consumption. It is estimated that one-third of all food produced globally is wasted or lost. This waste happens at different stages:
- In developed countries, most waste occurs at the consumer level, with large amounts of food being discarded in households, supermarkets, and restaurants.
- In developing countries, the majority of food is lost during post-harvest storage, processing, and transportation due to insufficient infrastructure and preservation technologies.
The key food waste issues are:
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Activity: Track household food waste for a week and discuss global food waste challenges.
- Categorize food waste (e.g., fruit, vegetables, meat, grains, spoiled food, leftovers thrown away, food scraps, etc.).
- Record details such as the type of food, the reason for waste (e.g., expired, uneaten leftovers), and approximate amounts (weight, volume, or pieces).
- Calculate the total amount of food wasted, organized by category (e.g., fruits, vegetables, meat, etc.).
- Were there certain types of food that were more likely to be wasted than others? What were the reasons for the waste?
- Compare your findings with national averages for food waste. For example, in many high-income countries, it’s estimated that about 30-40% of food is wasted at the consumer level.
5.2.4 Agriculture systems across the world vary considerably due to the different nature of the soils and climates.
- List three factors that influence the choice of agricultural system in a given region.
- Outline how soil fertility varies between two biomes and the implications for agriculture.
- Explain the relationship between climate and crop choice in different regions
Agricultural systems are highly dependent on soil characteristics and climatic conditions, which vary significantly across regions. These factors influence the types of crops that can be grown, the farming methods used, and the overall productivity of agricultural land. Crops like wheat and rice dominate temperate regions, while tropical climates support crops such as sugar cane, cocoa, and palm oil. Irrigation is crucial for desert agriculture, while rain-fed systems prevail in other areas.
Soils differ in terms of their fertility, structure, texture, and nutrient-holding capacity:
Climate plays a critical role in determining agricultural systems:
Climate change is disrupting traditional agricultural systems around the world. Rising temperatures, shifting rainfall patterns, and more frequent extreme weather events are challenging farmers' ability to predict and manage crop cycles:
Soils differ in terms of their fertility, structure, texture, and nutrient-holding capacity:
- In tropical rainforests, soils tend to be nutrient-poor due to rapid decomposition and leaching caused by high rainfall. These soils, known as oxisols, often support lush vegetation but are less suited for sustained agriculture unless supplemented with fertilizers or organic matter.
- Temperate grassland soils, such as the mollisols found in prairies, are rich in nutrients and organic matter, making them highly fertile and well-suited for large-scale agriculture, particularly for crops like wheat and maize.
- Arid and semi-arid soils, such as aridisols in desert regions, have low organic content and are prone to salinization, limiting their agricultural potential unless irrigated or carefully managed.
- Wetland soils, such as histosols, are rich in organic matter and can be highly productive when drained, although improper drainage can lead to soil degradation and the release of stored carbon.
Climate plays a critical role in determining agricultural systems:
- Tropical climates with high temperatures and consistent rainfall support crops like rice, bananas, and sugarcane, but farming in these areas can be challenging due to pests, diseases, and soil degradation caused by high rainfall.
- Temperate climates, with distinct seasons and moderate rainfall, support a wide range of crops, including grains, fruits, and vegetables. These climates often have less intense growing seasons but are more stable and predictable for agricultural planning.
- Mediterranean climates, characterized by hot, dry summers and cool, wet winters, are ideal for crops such as olives, grapes, and citrus fruits. Farmers in these regions rely on irrigation to offset water shortages during the dry season.
- Arid and semi-arid climates present the greatest challenge for agriculture due to low and unpredictable rainfall. Farmers in these regions often practice dryland farming or rely on irrigation, though this can lead to salinization of soils if not properly managed.
- Highland and mountain regions experience cooler temperatures and shorter growing seasons, making them suitable for hardy crops like potatoes and barley. Terracing is commonly used in these regions to prevent soil erosion and make use of steep terrain.
Climate change is disrupting traditional agricultural systems around the world. Rising temperatures, shifting rainfall patterns, and more frequent extreme weather events are challenging farmers' ability to predict and manage crop cycles:
- Warming temperatures can extend growing seasons in some temperate regions, potentially boosting agricultural productivity. However, they also increase the risk of droughts, heatwaves, and pest outbreaks, particularly in tropical and arid regions.
- In regions experiencing increased rainfall, soils may become waterlogged, leading to erosion, nutrient leaching, and crop loss. Conversely, in areas where rainfall is declining, drought and water scarcity pose major challenges to food production.
- Some regions, such as the Sahel in Africa, are already facing severe impacts from climate change, with shifting patterns of rainfall threatening traditional farming systems and food security. In response, many communities are adopting climate-resilient farming practices, such as drought-tolerant crops, agroforestry, and conservation agriculture to adapt to these changing conditions.
Industrial Agriculture and Sustainability Issues
5.2.5 Agricultural systems are varied, with different factors influencing the farmers’ choices. These differences and factors have implications for economic, social and environmental sustainability.
- Outline the different types of agricultural systems based on their outputs.
- Explain how commercial and subsistence farming differ in terms of inputs and outputs.
- Discuss the benefits and limitations of using organic versus inorganic inputs in agriculture.
Farming systems are diverse and vary widely across the globe, influenced by factors such as climate, geography, economic goals, and cultural practices. These systems can range from small-scale subsistence farming, where farmers grow enough to feed their families, to large-scale commercial agriculture, focused on producing goods for market sale. Other systems include mixed farming, which integrates crops and livestock, and nomadic pastoralism, where herders move with their animals in search of fresh pastures.
Types of farming systems
Types of farming systems
Agricultural systems around the world are influenced by a variety of factors, including environmental conditions, economic constraints, social factors, and available technology. The decisions farmers make regarding their systems have significant implications for sustainability—whether that’s economic viability, social equality, or environmental impact.
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Implications for Economic, Social, and Environmental Sustainability:
Economic Sustainability:
Economic Sustainability:
- Different agricultural systems affect income generation, especially when comparing commercial vs. subsistence farming or intensive vs. extensive systems. Sustainable intensification could allow farmers to maintain high productivity while reducing environmental damage.
- Farming choices impact local communities. For example, subsistence farming supports local food security but may not generate sufficient income to lift farmers out of poverty.
- Choices about inputs and farming methods (e.g., monoculture vs. diverse farming) have direct impacts on biodiversity, soil health, and water resources. Sustainable agricultural systems that integrate biodiversity, water conservation, and soil regeneration can ensure long-term sustainability.
Activity: Create a systems diagram of a farming system
Application of skills: Choose Two Contrasting Agricultural Systems
Examine each system in terms of the following:
Examine each system in terms of the following:
- Environmental factors (climate, soil type, water availability).
- Farming practices (monoculture vs. polyculture, use of irrigation, mechanization).
- Inputs and outputs (fertilizers, labor, water, crop yields, livestock production).
- Environmental impacts (soil degradation, water use, biodiversity loss, carbon footprint).
- Economic and social factors (market demands, access to technology, government policies).\
Example of compare and contrast from http://yesitsyomoma.wordpress.com
Terrestrial Systems:
Intensive Charolais beef production in France:
In Western Europe the Charolais beef is one of the beef brands chosen. Through selective breeding and genetic engineering bloodlines that puts weight on exist but has a low fat cover. Charolais lives under controlled conditions, they are fed with high proteins and treated with antibiotics to make sure they are healthy. Lots of energy is used in transporting and processing the finished meat.
Cattle raised outdoors however grown on single monoculture ( cultivation of a single crop on a farm or in a region or country) grass land in large fields with a high stock rate. To keep the productivity of these fields going, large amounts of fertilizer are used.
This intensified farming e the 1940′s with the aim of producing cheaper meat has led to habitat loss as they have been removed to make bigger fields and cases of Eutrophication have increased as excess use of fertilizers and large amounts of slurry produced in the system enter water courses. Fear of causing antibiotic resistance in human bacteria through bioaccumulation.
Inputs:
- high use of energy for food distribution
- high use of capital
- high use of technology
- high use of labor
- high use of food supplements
- selective breeding and genetic engineering (system characteristics)
- indoor rearing
- fertilizers to maximize grass production
- high use of antibiotics and hormones
- cheap meat (socio-cultural)
- high habitat destruction to make bigger fields (environmental impact)
- high antibiotic resistance
- eutrophication
- high yields
- high pollution runoff (environmental impact)
- high animal waste (environmental impact)
- high soil losses (from erosion).
Nomadic cattle grazing of the Himba:
The Charolais beef production can be contrasted with the Nomadic cattle grazing of the Himba. The Himba people are from North West Namibia, they survive by being Nomadic hunters/grazers. They also have a tight bond with the cattle they graze. During the dry seasons the Himba move their cattle from area to area until the grass is used up until the raining season, they go to better pastures. Cattle to the Himba are very important as they provide; meat, milk, skins and even dung for fires. Prestige between the Himba is seen by how many cattle they have, not the size of the cattle. The cattle during the dry season may start competing with herbivores. This has increased especially with global warming drought periods. This can lead to soil erosion as extra grazing pressure removes the grasses that hold the top soil together.
Input:
- nomadic grazing moving from place to place so land has a chance to recover
- cattle survive on low grade natural forage with no supplements
- during drought cattle die as grass disappears adding patches of nutrients to the soil (environmental impact)
- no capital
- low use of labor
- low use of water
- no use of technology
- no use of fertilizers.
- Himba cattle provide meat, milk and fuel (dung)
- owning cattle gives status in community (socio-cultural)
- during drought times Himba cattle compete with wild grazers for food this can lead to high soil erosion as well as food shortage (environmental impact)
- low yields,
5.2.6 Nomadic pastoralism and slash-and-burn agriculture are traditional techniques that have sustained low-density populations in some regions of the world.
- Define slash-and-burn agriculture
- List two characteristics of nomadic pastoralism.
- Outline the environmental impacts of slash-and-burn agriculture in tropical rainforests.
- Discuss the sustainability of traditional farming methods for low-density populations.
Both nomadic pastoralism and slash-and-burn agriculture are traditional agricultural practices that have evolved over thousands of years, allowing human populations to survive in regions with limited agricultural potential. These techniques, however, are becoming increasingly unsustainable as population densities rise and human societies become more settled.
Nomadic pastoralism is the practice of moving herds of livestock to different pastures throughout the year. This system is commonly used in arid and semi-arid regions where the soil and water resources cannot support continuous farming.
Nomadic pastoralism is the practice of moving herds of livestock to different pastures throughout the year. This system is commonly used in arid and semi-arid regions where the soil and water resources cannot support continuous farming.
- Examples:
- Practiced by groups such as the Masai in Kenya and Tanzania, and the Bedouins in the Middle East.
- Often involves herds of goats, sheep, or camels, which are well adapted to harsh, dry climates.
- Environmental Impact:
- Positive: In areas with low population density, nomadic pastoralism can be sustainable, as it prevents overgrazing by allowing the land time to recover as herders move.
- Negative: However, as populations grow, or when herders are restricted to smaller areas (e.g., due to the establishment of national borders), overgrazing can lead to soil degradation and desertification.
Slash-and-burn agriculture, also known as shifting cultivation, is a method in which forests or woodlands are cleared by cutting and burning trees and vegetation. The resulting nutrient-rich ash fertilizes the soil, allowing crops to be grown for a few years before the land is left fallow to regenerate.
- Examples:
- This practice is common among indigenous groups in tropical rainforests, such as the Kayapo in the Amazon Basin.
- It is used to grow crops like maize, cassava, and bananas, which thrive in the nutrient-poor soils of tropical rainforests.
- Environmental Impact:
- Positive: In areas with low population density, this method can be sustainable, as the land is given time to recover during the fallow period. Slash-and-burn methods are often part of complex cycles of land use that maintain biodiversity and forest ecosystems.
- Negative: As populations increase, fallow periods become shorter, preventing the forest from regenerating and leading to deforestation, soil erosion, and loss of biodiversity.
Modern Pressures:
As indigenous cultures modernize, and as population densities increase, the sustainability of both nomadic pastoralism and slash-and-burn agriculture diminishes. Settled populations require more continuous farming and grazing, which leads to increased environmental degradation. Additionally, government policies, such as land privatization or the establishment of national parks, often reduce the amount of land available for these practices, forcing people to adopt more intensive methods.
As indigenous cultures modernize, and as population densities increase, the sustainability of both nomadic pastoralism and slash-and-burn agriculture diminishes. Settled populations require more continuous farming and grazing, which leads to increased environmental degradation. Additionally, government policies, such as land privatization or the establishment of national parks, often reduce the amount of land available for these practices, forcing people to adopt more intensive methods.
5.2.7 The Green Revolution (also known as the Third Agricultural Revolution in the 1950s and 1960s) used breeding of high-yielding crop plants—combined with increased and improved irrigation systems, synthetic fertilizer and application of pesticides—to increase food security. It has been criticized for its sociocultural, economic and environmental consequences.
- Outline the key features of the Green Revolution.
- Explain how the Green Revolution impacted food security and environmental sustainability.
- Discuss the environmental and economic consequences of the Green Revolution.
The Green Revolution, beginning in the 1950s and 1960s, represented a transformative period in agriculture that dramatically increased food production globally. By using a combination of high-yield crop varieties (especially rice, wheat, and maize), synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, and advanced irrigation systems, it significantly improved food security for many regions, particularly in developing countries.
This revolution is often termed the Third Agricultural Revolution, following the earlier introduction of mechanized farming and crop rotation techniques. It aimed to address widespread hunger and food insecurity but came with sociocultural, economic, and environmental consequences that have sparked debate over its sustainability and long-term impacts.
Key Techniques of the Green Revolution:
This revolution is often termed the Third Agricultural Revolution, following the earlier introduction of mechanized farming and crop rotation techniques. It aimed to address widespread hunger and food insecurity but came with sociocultural, economic, and environmental consequences that have sparked debate over its sustainability and long-term impacts.
Key Techniques of the Green Revolution:
- High-yielding varieties (HYVs): Breeding of genetically improved plants, particularly wheat and rice, which could produce more grains per plant.
- Synthetic Fertilizers: The use of nitrogen-based fertilizers, created using the Haber-Bosch process, to boost plant growth.
- Pesticides and Herbicides: To manage pests and weeds, which reduced crop losses and improved yields.
- Improved Irrigation: Large-scale irrigation projects ensured water availability in arid regions, enabling agriculture in areas previously unsuitable for farming.
The Green revolution followed 3 major strands in its attempts to transform agriculture - Social, Biochemical and Mechanical.
Activity: Research the social, economic, and environmental impacts of the Green Revolution on two contrasting countries.
Sustainable Farming Practices
5.2.8 Synthetic fertilizers are needed in many intensive systems to maintain high commercial productivity at the expense of sustainability. In sustainable agriculture, there are other methods for improving soil fertility.
- Define synthetic fertilizers and explain their role in intensive agricultural systems.
- List two negative environmental impacts associated with the use of synthetic fertilizers.
- Outline sustainable methods for improving soil fertility in place of synthetic fertilizers.
In intensive agricultural systems, synthetic fertilizers have become essential for maintaining high productivity and ensuring commercial success. These fertilizers contain high concentrations of essential nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium (NPK), which are necessary for plant growth. They allow for rapid plant development and large-scale production, helping meet the global demand for food. However, the widespread use of synthetic fertilizers has several consequences, particularly for long-term soil and environmental health.
It is important to know that synthetic fertilizers has strengths and limitations
Sustainable Methods for Improving Soil Fertility: In contrast to the reliance on synthetic fertilizers, sustainable agricultural practices focus on enhancing the natural fertility of the soil without causing long-term degradation. These methods include:
- Organic Fertilizers: Derived from animal manure, compost, and plant-based materials, organic fertilizers improve soil structure and boost microbial activity.
- Agroforestry and Continuous Cover Cropping: Growing trees or maintaining a continuous cover of crops in fields helps protect soil, prevent erosion, and naturally replenish nutrients.
- Mycorrhizal Fungi: These fungi form symbiotic relationships with plant roots, enhancing the plant's ability to absorb nutrients and water from the soil.
- Crop Rotation and Fallowing: Alternating crops and leaving fields fallow for periods restores soil nutrients and reduces the risk of pests and diseases.
- Green Manure and Nitrogen-fixing Plants: Planting legumes or other nitrogen-fixing plants replenishes nitrogen in the soil naturally, reducing the need for synthetic inputs.
Activity: Test the effects of organic and synthetic fertilizers on plant growth.
5.2.9 A variety of techniques can be used to conserve soil, with widespread environmental, economic and sociocultural benefits.
- Define soil conservation and list two techniques used to prevent soil erosion.
- Outline the environmental benefits of using cover crops and windbreaks for soil conservation.
- Explain how soil conservation techniques can enhance biodiversity in agricultural systems
Soil conservation techniques are crucial for preserving soil health and maintaining sustainable agricultural systems. These techniques are varied and can be classified in several ways, addressing both erosion control and fertility preservation. Each method provides a combination of environmental, economic, and sociocultural benefits, contributing to the long-term sustainability of farming systems and the resilience of communities.
Conservation from Erosion:
- Water Erosion Control:
- Terracing: Creating step-like fields on slopes to slow down water runoff and prevent soil from washing away.
- Contour Ploughing: Plowing along the contours of the land, rather than up and down slopes, to reduce water runoff and minimize erosion.
- Bunding: Constructing embankments along the contours of fields to hold back water and allow it to infiltrate the soil.
- Drainage Systems: Installing drainage systems to channel excess water away from fields, preventing waterlogging and erosion.
- Use of Cover Crops: Growing cover crops, such as legumes or grasses, between main crops to protect soil from the impact of raindrops and water erosion.
Wind Erosion Control:
- Tree and Hedge Windbreaks: Planting rows of trees or hedges around fields to reduce wind speed and protect soil from wind erosion.
- Use of Cover Crops: Similar to their role in preventing water erosion, cover crops protect the soil from being blown away by strong winds.
Conservation of Fertility:
- Soil Conditioners:
- Lime: Applying lime to neutralize acidic soils, improving their structure and making nutrients more available to plants.
- Organic Materials: Using compost, manure, or green manure (crops grown specifically to be plowed into the soil) to enhance soil fertility and organic matter content.
- Cultivation Techniques:
- Avoiding Marginal Land: Not cultivating land that is prone to erosion or degradation, such as steep slopes or areas with poor soil.
- Avoiding Overgrazing and Overcropping: Managing grazing and crop rotation carefully to prevent the soil from being stripped of nutrients or compacted by livestock.
- Strip Cultivation: Growing crops in strips along the contours of the land to reduce water runoff and erosion.
- Mixed Cropping and Crop Rotation: Planting different crops together or in rotation to maintain soil fertility, reduce pests and diseases, and promote biodiversity.
- Reduced Tillage: Minimizing the disturbance of soil by using no-till or low-till farming techniques, which help maintain soil structure and reduce erosion.
- Agroforestry: Integrating trees into agricultural systems to provide shade, reduce erosion, and improve nutrient cycling.
- Reduced Use of Heavy Machinery: Minimizing the use of heavy machinery to prevent soil compaction and damage to soil structure.
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Multifunctional Techniques:Many soil conservation techniques address multiple problems simultaneously. For example, cover crops not only protect soil from both wind and water erosion but also enhance soil fertility when plowed back into the ground as green compost. These multifunctional benefits make certain practices particularly valuable in sustainable agriculture.
Environmental Benefits:
- Erosion Prevention: Techniques like terracing, windbreaks, and contour plowing help preserve topsoil, reducing the risk of desertification in vulnerable areas.
- Soil Fertility: Using organic materials and green manure improves soil structure, water retention, and nutrient availability, supporting long-term productivity.
- Biodiversity: Methods such as agroforestry and mixed cropping promote biodiversity, enhancing ecosystem resilience and the services soils provide to crops and ecosystems.
- Sustainable Yields: By maintaining soil health and fertility, farmers can achieve more sustainable yields over the long term, ensuring steady income.
- Reduced Input Costs: Practices like using compost and reducing tillage can reduce the need for expensive synthetic fertilizers and machinery, lowering overall costs for farmers.
- Food Security: Soil conservation techniques help ensure that communities, especially in rural areas, can maintain productive land for growing food, supporting food security.
- Preservation of Traditional Knowledge: Many soil conservation practices are rooted in indigenous and traditional knowledge, promoting sustainable farming methods that have been passed down through generations. For example, crop rotation and agroforestry are commonly used in indigenous farming systems around the world.
- Community Resilience: In the face of climate change and environmental degradation, soil conservation techniques build resilience in rural and indigenous communities, enabling them to adapt to changing conditions and maintain livelihoods.
Activity: Create models simulating soil erosion and test different soil conservation techniques.
Sustainability of Diets and Trophic Levels
5.2.10 Humans are omnivorous, and diets include fungi, plants, meat and fish. Diets lower in trophic levels are more sustainable.
- List two reasons why plant-based diets are more sustainable than diets based on meat consumption. (4 marks)
- Outline how the yield of food per unit of land differs between plant-based and livestock farming. (4 marks)
- Explain how trophic levels relate to the efficiency of plant-based diets compared to meat-based diets.
Humans are omnivores, consuming a variety of foods that include plants, fungi, meat, and fish. This broad dietary capacity allows humans to access nutrients from multiple trophic levels within ecosystems. However, sustainability issues arise from the fact that diets higher up the trophic pyramid (like meat and fish consumption) are generally less efficient and more resource-intensive compared to plant-based diets.
The trophic pyramid concept explains that as you move up trophic levels, energy transfer becomes less efficient. It is estimated that only about 10% of the energy from one level of the food chain is transferred to the next, meaning that the production of meat and fish requires far more land, water, and energy than crops grown at lower trophic levels. Therefore, diets consisting predominantly of plants (lower trophic levels) are considered more environmentally sustainable, leading to lower energy demands, reduced greenhouse gas emissions, and decreased land use.
The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) projects that by 2050, global food production needs to increase by 70% compared to 2009 to meet growing demands. This creates challenges, as modern food production methods already contribute significantly to environmental degradation, including being responsible for 30% of global greenhouse gas emissions and 90% of deforestation .
The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) projects that by 2050, global food production needs to increase by 70% compared to 2009 to meet growing demands. This creates challenges, as modern food production methods already contribute significantly to environmental degradation, including being responsible for 30% of global greenhouse gas emissions and 90% of deforestation .
Food Yield and Cost:
The yield of food per unit of land area is significantly greater for crops than for livestock. For example:
By comparison, livestock farming requires far more inputs, including water, grain feed, and land. The environmental impacts are compounded by the fact that raising animals for food contributes disproportionately to greenhouse gas emissions, primarily through methane from livestock, land use changes, and overgrazing
The yield of food per unit of land area is significantly greater for crops than for livestock. For example:
- Plant-based agriculture produces a higher quantity of food per hectare of land compared to raising livestock. Staple crops such as grains, vegetables, and legumes offer greater caloric yield for human consumption.
- Cost efficiency: Growing plants is generally less resource-intensive and cheaper than raising animals for food. Livestock requires large amounts of feed, water, and space, and contributes to deforestation, soil degradation, and higher greenhouse gas emissions.
By comparison, livestock farming requires far more inputs, including water, grain feed, and land. The environmental impacts are compounded by the fact that raising animals for food contributes disproportionately to greenhouse gas emissions, primarily through methane from livestock, land use changes, and overgrazing
- Cattle need to consume on average 450 g of protein to produce 100 g of cooked beef, and produce about 16 kg of CO2 (equivalent) for 1 kg of meat.
- Sheep need to consume about 900 g of protein to produce 100 g of cooked lamb and produce about 13 kg of CO2 for 1 kg of meat.
- Pigs are omnivores and need about 110 g of protein to produce 100 g of cooked pork and produce about 5 kg of CO2 for 1 kg of meat.
- Chickens need about 75 g of protein to produce 100 g of cooked chicken and produce about 4.4 kg of CO2 for 1 kg of meat
.Sustainability of Plant-Based Diets:
Feeding lower down the trophic level is cheaper, requires less energy and less resources, emitting less CO2
- Environmental Sustainability: A shift towards plant-based diets could make agriculture more sustainable by reducing energy and resource consumption. Growing crops requires fewer resources, results in fewer greenhouse gas emissions, and occupies less land compared to raising animals.
- Water and Land Use: Livestock farming is one of the largest users of freshwater and a major driver of deforestation. By transitioning to a predominantly plant-based diet, less water and arable land would be needed, which would help preserve natural ecosystems and reduce the strain on finite resources.
- Lower Carbon Footprint: Plant-based agriculture generates fewer carbon emissions, as it avoids the methane production associated with livestock, which is one of the leading contributors to climate change.
Challenges:
- Nutritional Considerations: A fully plant-based diet requires careful planning to ensure adequate intake of nutrients like protein, iron, and vitamin B12, which are more readily available in animal products.
- Cultural and Economic Factors: In some cultures, meat consumption is deeply embedded, and transitioning to plant-based diets may face resistance. Economically, livestock farming provides livelihoods for millions of people globally, so any shift must consider the socioeconomic impacts.
Discussion on Sustainability:
The extent to which plant-based diets can make agriculture more sustainable depends on several factors:
- Scale: If large populations transition to plant-based diets, the overall environmental benefits could be substantial, including reduced deforestation, lower greenhouse gas emissions, and more efficient use of water and land.
- Agricultural Practices: Sustainable agricultural techniques, such as organic farming, agroecology, and permaculture, could further enhance the benefits of plant-based diets by promoting biodiversity and soil health while minimizing chemical inputs.
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Activity: Track your personal food consumption and categorizing foods based on trophic levels.
- Create columns for the type of food, the category it fits into (e.g., plants, herbivores, carnivores), and the trophic level.
- Note the source of the food (e.g., local, imported, processed, organic).
- Analyze the data by calculating the proportion of your diet that comes from each trophic level (e.g., percentage of plant-based foods, herbivores, and carnivores).
- Compare your average trophic level consumption with dietary patterns around the world. For example, some traditional diets (like the Mediterranean diet) are largely plant-based (Trophic Level 1), while others, such as Western diets, may contain more meat from higher trophic levels (Trophic Levels 3-4).
5.2.11 Current global strategies to achieve sustainable food supply include reducing demand and food waste, reducing greenhouse gas emissions from food production and increasing productivity without increasing the area of land used for agriculture.
- Define the term "sustainable food supply" and list two global strategies aimed at achieving this.
- Outline one way plant-based meat substitutes contribute to reducing greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture.
- Explain how increasing the shelf life of food can help reduce food waste and improve sustainability. (6 marks)
- Discuss the role of genetic modification in increasing agricultural productivity while maintaining sustainability.
Current global strategies aimed at achieving sustainable food production focus on addressing critical challenges such as reducing food demand, minimizing food waste, and cutting greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture. Simultaneously, efforts are made to increase agricultural productivity without expanding land use. These strategies are vital in meeting the growing demand for food, particularly as the global population continues to rise.
Reducing Demand and Food Waste
One approach to sustainable food systems is to reduce demand for resource-intensive foods, particularly animal products, and to cut food waste across supply chains. Food waste is a significant global issue, with around one-third of all food produced lost or wasted during distribution, storage, or consumption.
Reducing Demand and Food Waste
One approach to sustainable food systems is to reduce demand for resource-intensive foods, particularly animal products, and to cut food waste across supply chains. Food waste is a significant global issue, with around one-third of all food produced lost or wasted during distribution, storage, or consumption.
- Extended Shelf Life: New technologies that enhance the shelf life of foods—such as vacuum packaging, modified atmosphere packaging, and improved refrigeration—help minimize food spoilage.
- Consumer Awareness: Campaigns aimed at reducing food waste and promoting sustainable consumption choices are key to reducing demand on agricultural systems.
Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions:
Agriculture is responsible for nearly 30% of global greenhouse gas emissions, contributing significantly to climate change. Tackling these emissions is essential for long-term sustainability.
Increasing Productivity Without Increasing Land Use:
Sustainable agricultural practices aim to increase the yield of crops without converting more natural land into farmland, thus preserving ecosystems and biodiversity.
Agriculture is responsible for nearly 30% of global greenhouse gas emissions, contributing significantly to climate change. Tackling these emissions is essential for long-term sustainability.
- Plant-Based Meat Substitutes: The development of plant-based proteins (such as soy-based or lab-grown meat) has emerged as a promising strategy to reduce reliance on livestock farming, which is a major source of methane emissions.
- Low Methane Rice: Innovations like low-methane rice varieties reduce emissions from rice paddies, which are a significant source of methane, a potent greenhouse gas.
Increasing Productivity Without Increasing Land Use:
Sustainable agricultural practices aim to increase the yield of crops without converting more natural land into farmland, thus preserving ecosystems and biodiversity.
- In-Field Solar-Powered Fertilizer Production: Using solar energy to power fertilizer production directly on the farm can reduce the need for fossil fuels in agriculture.
- Reducing Nitrogen Loss: Methods like precision agriculture and genetic modification are being used to reduce nitrogen loss to the atmosphere during fertilizer application, improving efficiency and reducing pollution
Global Strategies for Food Security
5.2.12 Food security is the physical and economic availability of food, allowing all individuals to get the balanced diet they need for an active and healthy life.
- Define the term food security.
- Outline the main factors that contribute to food insecurity in low-income countries.
- Explain how climate change influences food security in developing nations.
- Discuss the global disparities in food security, referring to specific regions of the world.
- Food security is defined as the physical and economic availability of food, ensuring a balanced diet that supports an active and healthy life. While some populations rarely have to worry about access to food, others struggle daily with hunger.
Food security refers to the physical and economic availability of sufficient, safe, and nutritious food that meets dietary needs for an active and healthy life. It encompasses the availability, access, utilization, and stability of food resources. Food security is critical for individual health, well-being, and the overall development of nations. However, access to food varies significantly around the world.
According to the United Nations State of Food Security and Nutrition Report (2023), around 735 million people (about 9% of the global population) currently lack food security.
According to the United Nations State of Food Security and Nutrition Report (2023), around 735 million people (about 9% of the global population) currently lack food security.
Food insecurity can be measured at different levels of severity:
- People who are moderately food insecure are uncertain about their ability to obtain food and have had to reduce the quality and/or quantity of the food they eat to get by.
- People experiencing severe food insecurity have typically run out of food and, at worst, gone a day or more without eating.
Global Disparities in Food Security:
Food security is unevenly distributed across different regions, largely influenced by geographical location, political stability, economic development, and environmental conditions.
Food security is unevenly distributed across different regions, largely influenced by geographical location, political stability, economic development, and environmental conditions.
- High-Income Countries: In developed regions such as North America and Europe, food security is generally high due to advanced agricultural systems, strong economies, and stable food distribution networks.
- Low-Income Countries: In contrast, regions in Sub-Saharan Africa, parts of South Asia, and areas affected by conflict face high levels of food insecurity due to a combination of factors, including poverty, political instability, climate change, and poor infrastructure
United Nations Data on Food Security:
According to the United Nations' State of Food Security and Nutrition Report (2023), around 735 million people, or 9% of the global population, suffer from food insecurity. This number has been exacerbated by factors such as climate change, conflict, and the COVID-19 pandemic, which have disrupted food production and supply chains, increasing the risk of malnutrition.
According to the United Nations' State of Food Security and Nutrition Report (2023), around 735 million people, or 9% of the global population, suffer from food insecurity. This number has been exacerbated by factors such as climate change, conflict, and the COVID-19 pandemic, which have disrupted food production and supply chains, increasing the risk of malnutrition.
- Africa and South Asia: Food insecurity is particularly acute in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia, where populations rely heavily on subsistence farming and are highly vulnerable to environmental shocks, including droughts and floods.
- Latin America and the Caribbean: Food insecurity is also a concern in regions such as Latin America, where economic instability, inflation, and fluctuating commodity prices have affected food affordability.
Key Factors Influencing Food Security:
- Climate Change: Global warming and changing precipitation patterns affect crop yields, leading to reduced food availability in vulnerable regions.
- Economic Inequality: In many low-income countries, the lack of financial resources restricts access to food, especially in rural areas.
- Political Instability: War, conflict, and governance issues disrupt food production and distribution, as seen in conflict zones like Yemen or Syria.
- Environmental Degradation: Poor land management, deforestation, and desertification have degraded soils, reducing agricultural productivity.
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Activity: Research the current food insecurity situation
- What is the current food price inflation level
- Which countries are facing severe food insecurity. What are the reasons
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5.2.13 Contrasting agricultural choices will often be the result of differences in the local soils and climate.
- Outline the key differences in soil composition between mollisols and oxisols, and their impact on agricultural choices.
- Explain why ranching is a common agricultural practice in both aridisols and mollisols, despite the different climates.
- Discuss how local soils and climate influence the choice of agriculture in tropical rainforests and temperate grasslands.
Contrasting agricultural choices are shaped by the differences in local soils and climate in various biomes. These conditions influence which types of crops or livestock systems are sustainable and productive in a given region. In a given biome, the soil type, weather patterns, and access to water play crucial roles in determining what can be farmed.
Example 1: Mollisols in Steppes and Prairies:
Example 2: Oxisols in Tropical Forests:
Other Examples:
Example 1: Mollisols in Steppes and Prairies:
- Cereal farming and ranching are common in the mollisols of temperate grasslands (steppes and prairies). Mollisols are fertile soils rich in organic material, particularly suited for growing grains such as wheat, barley, and maize.
- Ranching, especially cattle farming, is also practiced in these regions due to the open grasslands that provide pasture.
Example 2: Oxisols in Tropical Forests:
- In tropical rainforests, the dominant soil type is oxisols, which are nutrient-poor and acidic. Despite these limitations, farmers grow soya beans and engage in cattle ranching.
- Soya beans have adapted to the low nutrient availability, often in conjunction with nitrogen-fixing crops.
- Cattle ranching is prevalent, but it often leads to deforestation and degradation of the oxisols.
Other Examples:
- Aridisols in Deserts: Farming in arid climates, such as desert regions, is dominated by ranching and irrigated crops. Due to low rainfall, crops like cotton and wheat rely heavily on artificial irrigation.
- Brown Earths in Temperate Forests: These soils support a mix of arable farming and pasture due to their ability to retain moisture and nutrients, supporting a diverse range of crops and livestock.
Activity: Compare large-scale wheat farming in the U.S. Midwest with small-scale subsistence farming in Sub-Saharan Africa, highlighting how local conditions shape farming practices.
5.2.14 Numerous alternative farming approaches have been developed in relation to the current ecological crisis. These include approaches that promote soil regeneration, rewilding, permaculture, non-commercial cropping and zero tillage.
- Define the concept of rewilding in relation to sustainable agriculture.
- Outline how permaculture differs from traditional farming methods in its approach to soil and water conservation.
- Discuss the advantages and challenges of zero tillage as a soil conservation technique.
- Explain how soil regeneration techniques can contribute to food sustainability.
In response to the ongoing ecological crisis, numerous alternative farming approaches have been developed, focusing on promoting sustainability, soil regeneration, and reducing environmental degradation. These methods often align with goals of food sustainability, water quality enhancement, local economic stability, and soil conservation.
Approaches:
Approaches:
- Soil Regeneration: Techniques such as cover cropping, composting, and rotational grazing are employed to rebuild soil fertility and organic matter, reducing soil erosion and nutrient depletion.
- Rewilding: This involves allowing previously farmed lands to return to a natural state, encouraging biodiversity and ecosystem resilience. It can include the reintroduction of native species and the creation of wildlife corridors.
- Permaculture: A holistic approach that integrates agriculture with natural ecosystems, permaculture focuses on sustainable, self-sufficient farming systems by mimicking natural processes.
- Non-Commercial Cropping: Small-scale, non-commercial farming often focuses on subsistence farming, prioritizing food security for local communities without reliance on large-scale industrial agriculture.
- Zero Tillage: By minimizing soil disturbance, zero tillage farming helps preserve soil structure, reduce erosion, and enhance water retention. This approach also encourages the natural decomposition of plant material, improving soil health.
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Impacts on Sustainability:
Challenges:
Implementing these methods requires significant changes in land management and often involves a trade-off between short-term economic gains and long-term sustainability. Furthermore, some practices, such as rewilding, may not be suitable for regions heavily dependent on agriculture for economic survival.
- Food Sustainability: Alternative farming approaches aim to produce enough food to meet local needs while minimizing the negative environmental impacts associated with traditional agricultural practices.
- Water Quality: These approaches often reduce the reliance on chemical fertilizers and pesticides, which can contaminate water sources. Agroecological practices like contour plowing or buffer strips also help manage water runoff and prevent pollution.
- Local Economic Stability: By promoting small-scale, locally-focused farming, these systems help strengthen local economies, providing jobs and reducing dependence on external food sources.
- Soil Conservation: Methods such as no-till farming and agroforestry help maintain soil health by preventing erosion, maintaining organic matter, and enhancing nutrient cycling.
Challenges:
Implementing these methods requires significant changes in land management and often involves a trade-off between short-term economic gains and long-term sustainability. Furthermore, some practices, such as rewilding, may not be suitable for regions heavily dependent on agriculture for economic survival.
5.2.15 Regenerative farming systems and permaculture use mixed farming techniques to improve and diversify productivity. Techniques include the use of animals like pigs or chickens to clear vegetation and plough the land, or mob grazing to improve soil.
- Outline the advantages of using mixed farming techniques in regenerative agriculture.
- Explain how mob grazing can improve soil quality and enhance productivity.
- Discuss the role of animals in regenerative farming and its impact on soil regeneration
Regenerative farming and permaculture focus on using mixed farming techniques that integrate animals and plants to enhance productivity, biodiversity, and soil health. These techniques aim to regenerate soil fertility, minimize erosion, and boost productivity without depleting natural resources.
Techniques in Regenerative Farming:
Disadvantages:
Techniques in Regenerative Farming:
- Use of Animals:
- Pigs or Chickens: These animals are used to clear vegetation and naturally till the land, reducing the need for mechanized plowing.
- Mob Grazing: This involves rotating large numbers of livestock through small areas of pasture for short periods. It helps to stimulate plant growth, reduce soil compaction, and enhance water retention.
- Plant-based Integration:
- Permaculture and regenerative farming systems often incorporate plant-based diets, where crops are cultivated alongside livestock. This creates a sustainable cycle where animals contribute to soil regeneration while crops provide food, contributing to food security.
- Agroforestry: Integrating trees into the farming system provides shade, stabilizes the soil, and offers additional food sources (e.g., fruit or nuts), benefiting both livestock and human diets.
- Soil Health: Increased organic matter, reduced erosion, and enhanced nutrient cycling.
- Biodiversity: Mixed farming systems improve ecosystem health by providing habitats for a wide range of species.
- Productivity: Enhanced productivity through natural cycles and reduced dependency on chemical inputs.
Disadvantages:
- Labor-Intensive: Regenerative and permaculture farming often require more manual labor and careful management compared to industrialized farming.
- Transition Period: It may take several years for soil and ecosystems to fully regenerate and for productivity to reach optimal levels.
5.2.16 Technological improvements can lead to very high levels of productivity, as seen in the modern high-tech greenhouse and vertical farming techniques that are increasingly important for supplying food to urban areas.
- Outline how vertical farming addresses the challenges of food production in urban areas.
- Explain the advantages and disadvantages of using high-tech greenhouses in food production.
- Discuss the sustainability challenges associated with technological improvements in agriculture, such as precision farming and automation.
Technological advancements in agriculture have led to high levels of productivity, especially through systems like modern high-tech greenhouses and vertical farming techniques. These methods are particularly important for supplying food in urban areas, where land space is limited.
- High-tech Greenhouses: Advanced greenhouses are climate-controlled environments that allow for year-round food production by manipulating light, temperature, humidity, and CO2 levels to maximize plant growth. These systems often use hydroponics, a method of growing plants in nutrient-rich water, which eliminates the need for soil and reduces water use.
- Vertical Farming: Vertical farming involves the cultivation of crops in stacked layers, often within controlled environments. This method saves space and can be implemented within cities, reducing food miles and bringing food production closer to consumers. It also reduces the need for pesticides and uses LED lighting to promote plant growth, making it more efficient.
However, these high-tech solutions are not without challenges. Despite the potential for increased productivity, such systems are often energy-intensive, relying heavily on electricity and fossil fuels for power. This dependence on non-renewable energy sources raises questions about the sustainability of these technologies in the long term.
21st-Century Agricultural Improvements:
Sustainability Concerns: While these innovations can greatly improve productivity, they are not always sustainable. Many require significant energy inputs and are dependent on non-renewable resources. The future of these technologies will likely rely on the development of renewable energy sources to power them.
21st-Century Agricultural Improvements:
- Precision Agriculture: Utilizes drones, sensors, and GPS mapping to monitor crops, ensuring that water and nutrients are delivered efficiently. This reduces waste and can improve yields.
- Automation: Robotics and AI technologies are increasingly used for planting, watering, harvesting, and monitoring crops, which reduces the need for labor and increases efficiency.
- Genetically Modified Crops: These crops are designed to be more resilient, pest-resistant, and higher-yielding, reducing the need for chemical inputs.
Sustainability Concerns: While these innovations can greatly improve productivity, they are not always sustainable. Many require significant energy inputs and are dependent on non-renewable resources. The future of these technologies will likely rely on the development of renewable energy sources to power them.
5.2.17 The sustainability of different diets varies. Supply chain efficiency, the distance food travels, the type of farming and farming techniques, and societal diet changes can all impact sustainability.
- List two factors that contribute to the sustainability of a plant-based diet.
- Outline the environmental impacts of food miles on global food production.
- Explain how the cultural shift towards plant-based diets can improve sustainability.
- Discuss the social and environmental impacts of food distribution in maintaining year-round supply of food
The sustainability of different diets depends on various factors, including supply chain efficiency, the distance food travels, farming techniques, and societal diet changes. These factors have environmental, social, and economic impacts, influencing the overall sustainability of the global food system.
Key Factors Influencing Diet Sustainability:
Key Factors Influencing Diet Sustainability:
- Supply Chain Efficiency: Efficient supply chains reduce waste and minimize resource use during transportation and storage. However, the length of the supply chain (social, economic, and physical distance) influences carbon emissions and environmental impact.
- Food Miles and Year-Round Supply: Importing out-of-season foods across long distances increases the carbon footprint of food systems. For instance, transporting fresh produce by air results in significantly higher emissions compared to local, seasonal produce.
- Cultural Shifts in Meat Consumption: Diets that are high in meat, particularly from industrial livestock systems, contribute to deforestation, high water use, and greenhouse gas emissions. As societies shift towards consuming less meat or adopting vegan or vegetarian diets, the environmental impact decreases.
- The Rise in Veganism: The growing popularity of plant-based diets can contribute to reduced carbon footprints and lower land and water use. However, these benefits depend on the sustainability of plant-based food supply chains.
- Growth trend: The vegan population has been growing steadily at a rate of 10.15% to 14.3% annually.
- Projections by 2030: By 2030, the vegan population is expected to surpass 12 million people (10-14% of the U.S. population), indicating continuous upward trends as plant-based lifestyles become more popular and accessible.
- The Planetary Health Diet (PHD):
- The Planetary Health Diet, developed by the EAT-Lancet Commission, proposes a diet that balances human health and environmental sustainability. It emphasizes plant-based foods while limiting animal-based products. The PHD could reduce greenhouse gas emissions, conserve water, and reduce the pressure on land resources if widely adopted.
Environmental Impacts:
- Physical Distance: Longer supply chains typically involve more fossil fuel use, leading to higher carbon emissions.
- Economic Distance: High costs of imported foods may impact food security in low-income regions.
- Social Distance: The inequitable distribution of food resources can exacerbate food insecurity and malnutrition.
Application of skills: Create a survey to investigate food preferences and the worldviews of various groups.
Activity: Track the origins of your meals for a week, calculate the food miles, and assess the environmental impact of the supply chain.
- Record all meals and snacks consumed over a week. Note the type of food, the country or region where it was produced (this information can often be found on packaging or by researching common food production areas), and the approximate distance the food has traveled (food miles).
- Use online tools or maps to calculate the distance between the production location and your home. For items with multiple ingredients, track the origin of the primary components.
- Categorize foods as locally sourced (within 100 miles) or imported and note the likely mode of transportation (truck, plane, or ship). Track processed and packaged foods to understand the complexity of their supply chains.
- Research national or global averages for food miles, particularly for different types of diets (e.g., plant-based vs. meat-based, locally sourced vs. imported). Compare your findings with these averages
- Did you rely more on locally sourced food, or did their diet include many imported items? How did the mode of transportation affect the environmental impact of your food choices? Were there any surprises or insights?.
5.2.18 Harvesting wild species from ecosystems by traditional methods may be more sustainable than land conversion and cultivation.
- Outline the benefits of harvesting wild species compared to agricultural land conversion. (4 marks)
- Discuss the sustainability of harvesting endangered species from wild populations. (8 marks)
- Explain how traditional harvesting methods contribute to ecosystem conservation
Traditional harvesting of wild species can be more sustainable than converting ecosystems into agricultural land. This approach allows the ecosystem to remain largely intact while utilizing its resources. Examples of wild species harvested sustainably include Brazil nuts, truffles, and bamboo shoots. These products often rely on minimal intervention, preserving biodiversity and ecosystem integrity.
Examples of Sustainable Harvesting:
Examples of Sustainable Harvesting:
- Brazil Nuts: Harvesting Brazil nuts from tropical forests helps maintain the forest ecosystem, providing income to local communities without damaging the forest structure.
- Truffles: Collected from forests, truffles provide high-value products without needing to clear land for cultivation
- Bamboo Shoots: Commonly harvested in Asia, bamboo can be sustainably harvested because it grows rapidly and regenerates without needing replanting.
- Honey and insects: In some cultures, honey and certain insect species are gathered sustainably from natural habitats, offering a protein source with a lower ecological footprint compared to industrial agriculture.
Controversial and Endangered Species:
While traditional methods can be sustainable, the harvesting of certain species can become problematic, especially when species are endangered or over-harvested due to illegal or unsustainable practices. For example:
Sustainability of Traditional Harvesting:
Traditional harvesting methods may offer a more sustainable approach compared to modern agricultural practices. They often maintain the balance of ecosystems while providing livelihoods to local communities. However, when overexploited or driven by illegal markets, such practices can lead to species depletion and ecosystem collapse.
While traditional methods can be sustainable, the harvesting of certain species can become problematic, especially when species are endangered or over-harvested due to illegal or unsustainable practices. For example:
- Pangolins: Despite being highly trafficked for their scales and meat, some regions justify their harvest as traditional. However, unsustainable harvesting has led to pangolins being critically endangered.
- Bears: Bears are harvested for bile extraction, often under inhumane conditions, and this traditional practice contributes to the decline of bear populations in the wild.
- Bushmeat: The traditional harvesting of wild animals, including species like primates and antelope, as bushmeat can lead to overexploitation, threatening species with extinction.
Sustainability of Traditional Harvesting:
Traditional harvesting methods may offer a more sustainable approach compared to modern agricultural practices. They often maintain the balance of ecosystems while providing livelihoods to local communities. However, when overexploited or driven by illegal markets, such practices can lead to species depletion and ecosystem collapse.
5.2.19 Claims that low-productivity, indigenous, traditional or alternative food systems are sustainable should be evaluated against the need to produce enough food to feed the wider global population.
- Discuss to what extent low-productivity, traditional, or indigenous food systems can meet global food demands in a sustainable manner.
- Explain the sustainability benefits and limitations of indigenous food systems in regions with rapidly growing populations
The sustainability of low-productivity, indigenous, traditional, or alternative food systems is often praised for its alignment with ecological cycles, local biodiversity, and low environmental impact. However, these systems must be evaluated against the increasing global food demand to understand whether they can scale to meet the needs of a growing population.
- Sustainability Considerations: Indigenous and traditional food systems often rely on small-scale, localized practices. These systems have a low carbon footprint, utilize biodiversity, and often engage in practices like crop rotation or agroforestry, which enrich the soil and promote long-term sustainability. However, they are typically labor-intensive, produce lower yields, and are less suited to large-scale commercial agriculture.
- Challenges: While these systems can contribute to local food security, they may struggle to meet global demands due to their lower productivity. This raises questions about their scalability and how well they can feed large populations. Additionally, there are economic pressures to convert traditional land into more intensive agricultural use, which threatens the continuation of these practices.
- Examples: Low-productivity farming systems, such as slash-and-burn agriculture, are sustainable for small populations in localized ecosystems but become less so as population pressures increase. These systems might be able to support subsistence farming but are less likely to compete with the yields of industrialized agriculture.
- Evaluation of Global Sustainability: To what extent can traditional agricultural systems provide a solution to the problem of global unsustainability in food production? Although these systems have lower environmental impacts and promote ecological health, their overall productivity might be insufficient to meet the caloric and nutritional needs of the global population without significant changes in food distribution or consumption habits.
5.2.20 Food distribution patterns and food quality variations reflect functioning of the global food supply industry and can lead to all forms of malnutrition (diseases of undernourishment and overnourishment).
- Outline the factors that lead to malnutrition despite an abundance of food.
- Explain how food distribution systems can influence the occurrence of famine.
- Discuss the extent to which political conflict can exacerbate food distribution issues, leading to malnutrition
Food distribution patterns and food quality variations significantly influence global food security and lead to multiple forms of malnutrition, including both undernourishment and overnourishment. Uneven food distribution is a significant cause of famine, as seen in historical and modern examples like the Irish potato famine (1845–49) caused by potato blight and famines in East Africa, which are exacerbated by drought and conflict. It is important to distinguish between food quantity and food quality. The biomass of available food does not necessarily correlate with its nutritional value—highly processed or low-quality food can lead to malnutrition even when there is no shortage of calories.
- Food is unevenly distributed, with regions experiencing surpluses (e.g., North America) while others face severe food shortages (e.g., Sub-Saharan Africa).
- Malnutrition can result from both lack of access to food (undernutrition) and poor-quality diets (overnutrition).
- Undernutrition: Lack of adequate calories and nutrients, leading to stunted growth and weakened immune systems.
- Overnutrition: Excess calories, often from processed foods, leading to obesity and related health issues (e.g., diabetes, heart disease).
Additional Examples:
- Irish Potato Famine (1845–49): This famine was driven by potato blight and the lack of sufficient food distribution systems to provide alternative food sources, causing widespread hunger and emigration.
- East African Famines: Often caused by drought, crop failure, and exacerbated by conflict, these famines reflect how both environmental and political factors can disrupt food availability.
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Key Terms
Food production
Herbivores Nitrates Mixed crops Pastoral Arable Crop rotation Organic fertilizer HL ONLY Vertical farming GMO Planetary Health Diet Permaculture Rewilding Regenerative Food sovereignty Undernutrition Malnutrition Overnutrition |
Food distribution
Synthetic Fertilizers Cash crop Trophic level Vegetarian Land rights Land grabbing |
Shifting cultivation
Antibiotics Organic Extensive farming Seed crop Intensive agriculture Food waste Green revolution Cash crop |
Slash and burn
Subsistence farming Agribusiness Pollinator Livestock Malnourishment Arable Farming |
Monoculture
Soil erosion Pastoral farming Nomadic Shifting cultivation Compost Green manure Terracing Cover crop |
Classroom Materials
Subtopic 5.2 Agriculture and Food Presentation.pptx | |
File Size: | 9874 kb |
File Type: | pptx |
Subtopic 5.2 Agriculture and Food Workbook.docx | |
File Size: | 1093 kb |
File Type: | docx |
Research where your food comes from, both the place and company www.seedmap.org
Community Supported Agriculture (CSA) membership program and/or a Food Co-op www.localharvest.org
Policies that integrate food and urban ag into city planning and zoning www.fao.org/fcit/policy-planning-institutions/en/
Food justice publications www.civileats.com
Equitable Food Oriented Development www.efod.org
What The World Eats
Comparing and Contrasting Farming Systems
Article: U.N. Urges Eating Insects; 8 Popular Bugs to Try
BBC: Could Insects be the Wonder Food of the Future?
Where does our food come from. Interesting interactive map.
Edible GMOs
Case Studies
- Two detailed case studies of contrasting food production systems comparing the inputs, outputs, system characteristics, environmental impacts, and socio-cultural systems (eg. industrial beef farming vs. traditional Maasai livestock)
Student Work
Listen to the Following Podcasts
BBC The Inquiry - How Can We Feed 11 Billion People Podcast
Listen to the Podcast and complete the Podcast Review Assignment
Listen to the Podcast and complete the Podcast Review Assignment
The U.S. Has Nearly 1.9 Billion Acres of Land. Here's How It Is Used
Correct use of terminology is a key skill in ESS. It is essential to use key terms correctly when communicating your understanding, particularly in assessments. Use the quizlet flashcards or other tools such as learn, scatter, space race, speller and test to help you master the vocabulary.
Useful Links
Plant Based Diets - WWF
Third World Farmer
Plant something at home and/or join a local community garden www.communitygarden.org
World Food Program
Interactive Map: The State of Food Insecurity in the World 2015
Video: Zero Hunger Challenge
National Geographic: Feeding the World
Food Resources - BBC Bitesize
Food Production and Energy Usage, Efficiency - the Energy Collection
Botany of Desire: The Potato - PBS
History of Certain Plants - PBS
Yields and Land Use in Agriculture
biodiversity International
FAO
Global Crop Diversity
Heifer International
Heifer International Alton Brown Ad
100 Mile Diet
Shifting Cultivation - Dig Planet
Free Rice: Earn Rice for UNICEF
Industrial Agriculture, Agroecology and Climate Change
Reforming Farming to Fight Climate Change
In The News
We need to redefine our relationship with food: How will we feed a hotter, smarter and more crowded world? - World Economic Forum, July 2022
Eight ways to halt a global food crisis - Conservation, July 2019
Drought in Eritrea: Hunger Despite Government Denials - BBC News Africa 4 September 2011
Trees ‘Boost African Crop Yields and Food Security’ - BBC Science and Environment News 16 October 2011
Can an African ‘Green Revolution’ help feed the world? - MSNBC Environment News 2 May 2012
Agroforestry in the Sahel as a model of sustainable agriculture - Scientific American 28 January 2011
Indigenous People Have Much of the Knowledge Needed to Adapt to Climate Change - Trust.org 24 April 2012
Dow and Monsanto Team Up - Earth First February 26th, 2012
Phosphorus Footprint of Your Meat - NPR February 17, 2013
Bananas Impact Ecosystems - NPR September 24, 2013
The Future of Food - National Geographic
Eating Insects Will Help Feed Hungry World, UN Says - LiveScience Contributor 27 Jun 2013
Forests Are Key to Global Food Security - BBC News 6 May 2015
International-mindedness:
- Food choices can be influenced by culture, religion or regional food production differences.
Theory of knowledge:
- Consumer behaviour plays an important role in food production systems—are there general laws that can describe human behaviour?
Video Clips
Global food supplies are not equally distributed and food prices are rising. The International Assessment of Agricultural Science and Technology for Development, IAASTD, argues that these factors pose a major global challenge. Increasingly politicians are looking to scientists and other disciplines for information that will assist them to make better decisions
The future of our world depends on addressing global challenges now. We need to create sustainable livelihoods, feed a growing population and safeguard the environment. We need to make the global economy green.
When you grow your own food, you know for a fact that every piece does not look as 'perfect' as those sold in stores. They are each unique, sometimes odd-looking, but taste delicious nonetheless.
King Corn is a feature documentary about two friends, one acre of corn, and the subsidized crop that drives our fast-food nation (trailer)
The biggest players in the food industry—from pesticide pushers to fertilizer makers to food processors and manufacturers—spend billions of dollars every year not selling food, but selling the idea that we need their products to feed the world. But, do we really need industrial agriculture to feed the world? Can sustainably grown food deliver the quantity and quality we need—today and in the future? Our first Food MythBusters film takes on these questions in under seven minutes. So next time you hear them, you can too.
Out to Pasture contrasts industrial-style confined animal production with farms that raise food animals outdoors in diversified operations, striving to be sustainable. Several of these pasture-based farmers are profiled and they tell their own vibrant stories of bucking the trends in farming.
An interesting video clip promoting organic farming
Fair Trade is about helping small family farmers in developing countries get organized and develop their business skills in order to tap into the world market directly.
Indonesia Rice-Fish Farming
In this presentation, Jonathan Foley shows how agriculture and land use are maybe a bigger culprit in the global environment, and could grow even larger as we look to feed over 9 billion people in the future.
Vitamin A deficiency is a deadly threat to kids and pregnant mothers in the Third World. In the Philippines, the best nutrient sources are rarely part of the daily diet, so researchers have tried adding vitamin A to rice, a staple food.