subtopic 6.3: Climate change – Mitigation and Adaptation

Climate change is one of the most complex issues facing us today. It involves many dimensions – science, economics, society, politics and moral and ethical questions – and is a global problem, felt on local scales, that will be around for decades and centuries to come. Carbon dioxide, the heat-trapping greenhouse gas that has driven recent global warming, lingers in the atmosphere for hundreds of years, and the planet (especially the oceans) takes a while to respond to warming. So even if we stopped emitting all greenhouse gases today, global warming and climate change will continue to affect future generations. In this way, humanity is “committed” to some level of climate change.
This unit is 4 hours SL.
This unit is 4 hours SL.
Guiding question
- How can human societies address the causes and consequences of climate change?
Understanding:
6.3.1 To avoid the risk of catastrophic climate change, global action is required, rather than
measures adopted only by certain states
measures adopted only by certain states
- Explain the challenges of achieving global cooperation in climate change mitigation. (6 marks)
Evaluate the effectiveness of the Paris Agreement in addressing climate change. (8 marks)
Outline one example of how state sovereignty has hindered climate action.
Because we are already committed to some level of climate change, responding to climate change involves a two-pronged approach:
Reducing emissions of and stabilizing the levels of heat-trapping greenhouse gases in the atmosphere (“mitigation”);
Adapting to the climate change already in the pipeline (“adaptation”).
Global Action
Reducing emissions of and stabilizing the levels of heat-trapping greenhouse gases in the atmosphere (“mitigation”);
Adapting to the climate change already in the pipeline (“adaptation”).
- Mitigation – reducing climate change – involves reducing the flow of heat-trapping greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, either by reducing sources of these gases (for example, the burning of fossil fuels for electricity, heat or transport) or enhancing the “sinks” that accumulate and store these gases (such as the oceans, forests and soil). The goal of mitigation is to avoid significant human interference with the climate system,
- Adaptation – adapting to life in a changing climate – involves adjusting to actual or expected future climate. The goal is to reduce our vulnerability to the harmful effects of climate change (like sea-level encroachment, more intense extreme weather events or food insecurity).
Global Action
- Global Cooperation:
- Climate change is a global issue; actions by individual states have limited impact without international collaboration.
- The tragedy of the commons describes how shared resources, like the atmosphere, are overexploited when nations prioritize their self-interests.
- State Sovereignty:
- States have the ultimate authority to govern their territories for the benefit of their citizens.
- Balancing sovereignty with global cooperation is challenging in addressing climate change.
- History of International Climate Agreements:
- 1988: IPCC Established:
- Formed by UNEP and WMO to assess climate science and recommend response strategies.
- 1992: Rio Earth Summit:
- Adopted Agenda 21, a global environmental action plan.
- 1997: Kyoto Protocol:
- Set binding GHG reduction targets for 37 industrialized nations.
- Introduced market-based mechanisms like emissions trading and adaptation funds for developing countries.
- 2007: Bali Action Plan:
- Laid groundwork for future agreements with focus on shared responsibility.
- 2009: Copenhagen Accord:
- Established the goal of limiting global warming to 2°C but lacked binding commitments.
- 2010: Cancun Agreements:
- Introduced a $100 billion Green Climate Fund to aid developing nations.
- 2015: Paris Agreement:
- Unified nations under the goal of limiting warming to 1.5°C–2°C.
- Requires countries to submit and strengthen Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) and regularly report progress.
- Recent COP Summits:
- COP26 (2021): Focused on coal phase-out and increased climate financing.
- COP27 (2022): Established a Loss and Damage Fund for vulnerable countries.
- COP28 (2023): Agreed to transition away from fossil fuels but set no timeline.
- 1988: IPCC Established:
- Carbon Taxes and Markets:
- Some countries, like those in the EU, are implementing carbon taxes and emissions trading systems to incentivize reductions.
- The Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM) ensures imported goods reflect their carbon emissions, preventing "carbon leakage."
6.3.2 Decarbonization of the economy means reducing or ending the use of energy sources that
result in CO2 emissions and their replacement with renewable energy sources.
result in CO2 emissions and their replacement with renewable energy sources.
- Define decarbonization and state two methods used to achieve it.
- Discuss the role of renewable energy in achieving carbon neutrality.
- Explain the difference between net zero and carbon positive emissions.
Decarbonization involves reducing or eliminating the use of energy sources that produce CO₂ emissions and replacing them with renewable energy sources such as solar, wind, and hydroelectric power.
- A critical step toward mitigating climate change and achieving global sustainability goals.
- Carbon Neutrality:
- Achieved when there is a balance between emitting carbon and absorbing it through carbon sinks.
- Applicable at various scales: individual, company, national, or global.
- Carbon Sequestration:
- The process of removing CO₂ from the atmosphere and storing it.
- Essential for achieving net zero emissions, where global emissions are counterbalanced by sequestration efforts.
- Net Zero:
- Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions are fully offset by carbon sequestration, leading to no net addition of GHGs to the atmosphere.
- Carbon Positive (or Carbon Negative):
- Refers to an entity absorbing more carbon emissions than it emits, actively contributing to carbon reduction.
- Carbon Offsetting:
- Offsetting emissions in one sector by reducing or eliminating them in another (e.g., planting trees to counterbalance industrial emissions).
Strategies for Decarbonization:
- Transition to renewable energy:
- Replacing fossil fuels with solar, wind, geothermal, and hydropower.
- Energy efficiency:
- Retrofitting buildings, adopting energy-efficient appliances, and optimizing industrial processes.
- Electrification:
- Promoting electric vehicles (EVs) and renewable-powered public transportation systems.
- Innovations in energy storage:
- Developing advanced batteries to stabilize renewable energy grids.
- Policy measures:
- Governments adopting carbon taxes, cap-and-trade systems, and subsidies for green technologies.
Comparison Table: Key Climate Strategies
Challenges:
- High initial costs of renewable energy infrastructure.
- Political and economic barriers to transitioning from fossil fuels.
- Ensuring energy equity, particularly in developing nations.
Activity: Research how a specific country is progressing toward net-zero emissions.
6.3.3 A variety of mitigation strategies aim to address climate change.
- Compare two strategies for removing CO₂ from the atmosphere.
- Evaluate the effectiveness of carbon taxes in reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
- Describe one example of a geoengineering strategy and its potential risks.
Mitigation involves actions to reduce the flow of greenhouse gases (GHGs) into the atmosphere or remove existing GHGs, thereby addressing climate change.
Categories of Mitigation Strategies:
Categories of Mitigation Strategies:
- Reducing GHG Production:
- Energy Efficiency:
- Lowering energy consumption through efficient technologies.
- Example: Switzerland's Energy Strategy 2050 offers subsidies for building renovations and enforces strict vehicle emissions standards.
- Renewable Energy:
- Replacing fossil fuels with solar, wind, hydro, and tidal energy.
- Facilitates societal electrification with low-carbon energy.
- Example: EU tracks GHG emissions from electricity to meet 2030 and 2050 targets.
- Food Choices:
- Reducing meat and dairy consumption lowers methane and CO₂ emissions.
- Example: The Planetary Health Diet balances health and planetary boundaries.
- Energy Efficiency:
- Agricultural Practices:
- Mitigation depends on location-specific strategies:
- Reduce tillage to preserve soil carbon.
- Use cover crops, perennial plants, and agroforestry.
- Manage rice paddies to minimize methane emissions.
- Mitigation depends on location-specific strategies:
Removing CO₂ from the Atmosphere:
- Carbon Sinks:
- Natural systems (e.g., forests, wetlands) absorb more CO₂ than they emit.
- Examples:
- Rewilding: Restoring ecosystems with large herbivores and carnivores.
- Afforestation: Planting trees in deforested areas.
- Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS):
- Captures CO₂ emissions from sources like factories and stores it underground.
- Direct Air Capture (DAC):
- Filters CO₂ directly from the atmosphere.
- Example: DAC plants globally capture ~0.01 Mt CO₂/year, with plans to scale up.
- Reducing the Global Warming Process:
- Geoengineering:
- Large-scale manipulation of Earth's systems.
- Strategies include:
- Solar Radiation Management (SRM): Reflect sunlight back into space using aerosols or reflective surfaces.
- Cloud Seeding: Enhances precipitation to support plant growth.
- Ocean Fertilization: Adds nutrients to boost phytoplankton absorption of CO₂.
- Geoengineering:
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Changing Behaviors:
- Personal Level:
- Use energy-efficient appliances, switch to renewables, reduce meat and dairy consumption, and limit flying.
- Government Level:
- Enforce carbon taxes, provide subsidies for green technologies, and plant urban green spaces.
- Business Level:
- Transition to sustainable energy and materials.
- Adopt regenerative agriculture and carbon storage technologies.
Key Challenges:
- High costs and slow adoption of renewable and CCS technologies.
- Dependence on government incentives and global cooperation.
- Potential unintended consequences of geoengineering.
Case Study Germany’s Renewable Energy Transition (Energiewende)
- Overview:
- Germany’s Energiewende ("energy transition") is a long-term strategy to transition to a renewable energy-based economy.
- Key goals include reducing GHG emissions by 80–95% by 2050 and phasing out coal and nuclear power.
- Key Features:
- Policy Framework:
- Feed-in tariffs incentivize renewable energy production.
- Carbon pricing encourages emissions reductions.
- Renewable Energy Expansion:
- Increased reliance on wind, solar, and biomass.
- By 2021, renewables accounted for over 40% of Germany's electricity generation.
- Energy Efficiency:
- Investments in building insulation and efficient appliances.
- Policy Framework:
- Outcomes:
- Reduction in carbon emissions from the energy sector.
- Technological innovations in wind turbines and solar panels, exported globally.
- Challenges:
- Economic pressures from rising energy costs.
- Balancing energy reliability during the coal and nuclear phase-out.
Activity: Complete the table for each of the three main categories of mitigation strategies.
- Which category of mitigation strategy is most relevant to your local context?
- What lessons from these case studies can be applied to your community?
6.3.4 Adaptation strategies aim to reduce adverse effects of climate change and maximize any
positive consequences.
positive consequences.
- Define adaptation
- Outline two structural adaptation strategies to address climate change. (4 marks)
- Explain how land zoning and building codes can reduce the impacts of climate change on vulnerable communities.
- Evaluate the effectiveness of non-structural adaptations, such as agricultural changes and vaccination programs, in reducing climate impacts
Climate adaptation strategies aim to reduce adverse effects of climate change and maximize positive outcomes. These strategies address both immediate and long-term challenges, recognizing that some climate change impacts are unavoidable due to locked-in environmental feedback mechanisms.
- Structural Adaptations: Physical changes to infrastructure or the environment to reduce vulnerability to climate impacts.
- Flood Defenses:
- Examples:
- Dykes, bunds, levees, and flood barriers.
- Sea walls, such as the Thames Barrier in London.
- Nature-based solutions: Mangroves, salt marshes, and cord grass planting to absorb storm surges.
- Raised plinths in Bangladesh to protect settlements from regular floods.
- Examples:
- Desalination Plants:
- Convert seawater into freshwater to address water scarcity.
- Example: Sorek Desalination Plant in Israel supplies drinking water in a water-scarce region.
- Movable Infrastructure:
- Floating houses, modular housing, and mobile energy or water treatment plants.
- Example: The Maeslant Barrier in the Netherlands, a movable storm surge barrier.
- Urban Greening:
- Green roofs absorb heat, sunlight, and pollutants while reducing energy needs for cooling.
- Enhances biodiversity and mitigates urban heat island effects.
- Cooling Centers:
- Provide public spaces for individuals to escape extreme heat and rehydrate.
- Example: Cooling centers in Los Angeles public libraries.
2. Non-Structural Adaptations: Changes in practices, policies, and behaviors to build resilience.
- Adapting Agricultural Practices:
- Use drought-resistant or genetically engineered crops to handle salinity, heat stress, and changing rainfall patterns.
- Example: Fonio, a drought-resistant grain grown in West Africa.
- Rewilding examples, like Knepp Farm in the UK, restore ecosystems to adapt to changing conditions.
- Ecosystem Restoration:
- Includes reforestation, invasive species removal, and watershed restoration to rebuild climate resilience.
- Vaccination Programs:
- Address spreading diseases due to climate change, such as malaria in previously temperate areas.
- Increase resilience in vulnerable populations.
- Land Zoning and Building Codes:
- Examples:
- Zoning maps for flood risks (e.g., Netherlands' public mapping apps).
- Building codes requiring energy-efficient designs like Passive Housing, LEED, or BREEAM standards.
- Coastal and cyclone-prone areas mandate stronger structural resilience.
- Examples:
- Climate Education and Warning Systems:
- Educate communities about climate risks and adaptations.
- Early warning systems for floods and cyclones, like in Bangladesh, save lives and reduce damage.
- Water Conservation:
- Rainwater harvesting and drip irrigation to optimize scarce water resources.
- Example: Incentives in Australia for water-saving technologies.
- Maximizing Crop Yields:
- Take advantage of longer growing seasons in some regions due to warming.
Importance of Adaptation:
- Even with significant GHG reductions, some climate change effects are inevitable.
- Adaptation builds resilience, protects lives, and sustains ecosystems while supporting economic and social stability.
Case Study: The Thames Barrier, London, UK
- Overview:
- The Thames Barrier protects London from flooding caused by storm surges and rising sea levels.
- It is one of the largest movable flood barriers in the world.
- Key Features:
- Engineering:
- Built in 1982, it consists of 10 gates that can close during high tides and storm surges.
- Technology:
- Automated monitoring systems ensure timely operations.
- Adaptability:
- Designed to handle increasing sea-level rise through mid-century.
- Engineering:
- Outcomes:
- Prevented significant damage from flooding, saving billions in potential economic losses.
- Protected critical infrastructure and the population of London.
- Challenges:
- Increasing sea levels due to climate change may necessitate further upgrades.
- High maintenance costs.
Case Study: The Thames Barrier, London, UK
- Overview:
- The Thames Barrier protects London from flooding caused by storm surges and rising sea levels.
- It is one of the largest movable flood barriers in the world.
- Key Features:
- Engineering:
- Built in 1982, it consists of 10 gates that can close during high tides and storm surges.
- Technology:
- Automated monitoring systems ensure timely operations.
- Adaptability:
- Designed to handle increasing sea-level rise through mid-century.
- Engineering:
- Outcomes:
- Prevented significant damage from flooding, saving billions in potential economic losses.
- Protected critical infrastructure and the population of London.
- Challenges:
- Increasing sea levels due to climate change may necessitate further upgrades.
- High maintenance costs.
Activity: Create a detailed case study for each of the two main categories of adaptation strategies.
- What are the most critical adaptations needed in your region?
Application of skills: Create surveys to investigate attitudes to a proposed solution in the school or
community to mitigate climate change.
community to mitigate climate change.
6.3.5 Individuals and societies on a range of scales are developing adaptation plans, such as
National Adaptation Programmes of Action (NAPAs), and resilience and adaptation plans.
National Adaptation Programmes of Action (NAPAs), and resilience and adaptation plans.
- Describe the role of NAPAs in addressing climate change impacts.
- Analyse how local adaptation plans can complement national strategies.
- Discuss the challenges faced by developing nations in implementing adaptation plans.

National Adaptation Programmes of Action (NAPAs) focus on identifying immediate and urgent climate adaptation needs.
- Plans aim to:
- Build resilience in vulnerable communities.
- Address specific risks like sea-level rise, water scarcity, and heatwaves.
- UN Development Programme assists developing nations in formulating and implementing NAPAs.
- Local adaptation plans prioritize community-based solutions, such as improving water storage or urban cooling projects.
hl only
This section is 4 hours at HL.
6.3.6 Responses to climate change may be led by governments or a range of non-governmental
stakeholders. Responses may include economic measures, legislation, goal setting commitments
and personal life changes.
stakeholders. Responses may include economic measures, legislation, goal setting commitments
and personal life changes.
- Describe the role of governments in addressing climate change through economic measures.
- Explain how carbon trading can reduce emissions and incentivize sustainable practices.
- Evaluate the benefits and limitations of B Corporation (B Corp) certification in supporting climate action.
Climate change responses involve actions by governments, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), businesses, and individuals. Strategies include economic measures, legislation, technological advancements, goal-setting commitments, and behavioral changes.
Stakeholder Responses
1. Governments
Stakeholder Responses
1. Governments
- Economic Measures:
- Carbon Taxes:
- Price set per tonne of CO₂ emissions to encourage reductions.
- Revenue supports environmental strategies or offsets other taxes.
- Carbon Trading (Cap-and-Trade):
- Governments set emission limits (caps) and distribute/sell permits to businesses.
- Companies can trade permits, incentivizing reductions to save or earn money.
- Example: The EU’s Emissions Trading System (ETS).
- Tariffs and Incentives:
- Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM):
- Ensures imported goods reflect their carbon costs to prevent carbon leakage.
- Example: EU’s CBAM encourages cleaner industrial practices globally.
- Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM):
- Subsidies:
- Financial support for businesses adopting low-carbon technologies.
- Carbon Taxes:
- Legislation:
- Net Zero Commitments:
- Countries like the UK, Germany, and Canada have enacted laws to meet emissions targets.
- Example: The UK Climate Change Act 2008 mandates emissions reductions and climate risk adaptation.
- Net Zero Commitments:

2. Businesses and Industry
- Sustainable Business Practices:
- Transition to renewable energy and lower carbon-intensive operations.
- Example: Businesses adopting B Corporation (B Corp) Certification to meet sustainability standards.
- Benefits:
- Encourages reduction of emissions and waste.
- Promotes fair labor and environmental practices.
- Builds community among like-minded businesses.
- Criticism:
- Certification cost may exclude small businesses.
- Concerns over leniency for large corporations with problematic supply chains.
- Benefits:
- Technological Innovations:
- Carbon capture and storage (CCS) technologies to sequester CO₂ from industrial processes.
- Development of sustainable production methods.
3. Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs)
4. Individuals
Challenges and Opportunities
- Advocate for climate policies, educate communities, and monitor government/business actions.
- Example: WWF campaigns for renewable energy transitions and conservation initiatives.
4. Individuals
- Behavioral Changes:
- Reduce personal emissions:
- Use energy-efficient appliances.
- Transition to plant-based diets.
- Limit flying and use public transportation.
- Support circular economies by repairing, reusing, and buying second-hand goods.
- Reduce personal emissions:
- Voting and Advocacy:
- Elect leaders who prioritize climate policies.
- Participate in community-driven climate actions.
Challenges and Opportunities
- Economic Barriers:
- High costs for businesses transitioning to sustainable practices.
- Global inequalities in access to low-carbon technologies.
- Global Cooperation:
- Controversies around unilateral tariffs and cross-border legislation.
- Necessity for equitable frameworks to ensure developing nations can participate effectively.
Case Study: France’s Climate Action Plan
- Overview:
- France has engaged multiple stakeholders to achieve its goal of carbon neutrality by 2050.
- Focuses on integrating public, private, and individual actions.
- Key Features:
- Government Initiatives:
- The Anti-Waste Law mandates sustainable practices, such as banning single-use plastics by 2040.
- Subsidies for EV purchases and energy-efficient building renovations.
- NGOs:
- Organizations like Greenpeace France advocate for stronger climate policies and public awareness.
- Businesses:
- Large companies must report environmental impacts under the ESG Reporting Directive.
- Energy companies like EDF invest heavily in nuclear and renewable energy.
- Individual Engagement:
- Public awareness campaigns encourage waste reduction and renewable energy adoption.
- Citizen assemblies provide input into climate policy decisions.
- Government Initiatives:
- Outcomes:
- A 19% reduction in GHG emissions between 2005 and 2020.
- Significant progress in renewable energy integration (wind, solar).
- Challenges:
- Balancing economic growth with ambitious climate goals.
- Opposition from industrial sectors reliant on fossil fuels.
Activity: Consider one example for each of these categories: economic, legislative, and industry. Consider their impact.
Application of skills: Investigate mitigation and adaptation policies of the regional or national government.
6.3.7 The UN has played a key role in formulating global strategies to address climate change
- Describe the role of the UNFCCC in stabilizing greenhouse gas concentrations.
- Explain how the Kigali Amendment complements the goals of the UNFCCC.
- Evaluate the effectiveness of IPCC's Shared Socioeconomic Pathways (SSPs) in guiding global climate actions.
- Discuss the challenges of implementing outcomes from COP summits in developing nations.

The Role of the UNFCCC:
Key Contributions of the UN:
- The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC):
- Established to stabilize greenhouse gas (GHG) concentrations to prevent dangerous interference with the climate system.
- Oversees global negotiations and agreements through Conference of the Parties (COP) summits.
- Facilitates collaboration between nations to achieve climate targets.
Key Contributions of the UN:
- Conference of the Parties (COP):
- Annual summits where countries review progress and set new climate action goals.
- Example Outcomes:
- COP26 (Glasgow, 2021):
- Agreement to phase out coal and increase climate financing.
- COP27 (Sharm El-Sheikh, 2022):
- Establishment of the Loss and Damage Fund to help developing nations.
- COP28 (Dubai, 2023):
- Commitment to transitioning away from fossil fuels without a clear timeline.
- COP26 (Glasgow, 2021):
- The Kigali Amendment (an extension of the Montreal Protocol):
- Added regulations to reduce hydrochlorofluorocarbon (HCFC) emissions, which contribute to global warming.
- IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change):
- Provides scientific assessments on climate change, its impacts, and mitigation/adaptation strategies.
- Informs global policies and agreements through evidence-based scenarios.
Challenges:
- Global Inequality:
- Developing nations may lack resources to implement high-cost adaptation or mitigation strategies.
- Slow Progress:
- Disagreements among nations and lack of binding commitments hinder faster action.
- Monitoring and Enforcement:
- Limited mechanisms to enforce compliance with NDCs (Nationally Determined Contributions).
This table highlights significant milestones where COP summits have reinforced and expanded the goals of the original UNFCCC, demonstrating the evolution of global climate governance.
6.3.8 The IPCC has proposed a range of emissions scenarios with targets to reduce the risk of
catastrophic climate change
catastrophic climate change
- Describe the purpose of the IPCC’s Shared Socioeconomic Pathways (SSPs).
- Explain how the SSP1 and SSP5 scenarios differ in terms of their GHG emissions and estimated impacts on sea levels.
- Evaluate the usefulness of the IPCC’s emissions scenarios in guiding global climate policy.
- Discuss the challenges of achieving the emissions reductions required in SSP1.

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has developed five Shared Socioeconomic Pathways (SSPs) to explore future climate outcomes based on GHG emissions. These scenarios account for uncertainties in global policies, technological advancements, and behavioral changes, providing insights into temperature increases and necessary GHG reductions.
The Five Scenarios:The IPCC’s Sixth Assessment Report (AR6) outlines the following SSPs, which correlate emissions with temperature increases and their impacts:
Key Insights from IPCC Graphics (AR6):
Practical Applications of the Scenarios:
Challenges and Limitations:
- GHG Emissions vs. Temperature:
- Higher emissions lead to significantly greater warming by 2100.
- Drastic reductions in GHGs are needed by 2050 to limit warming to below 2°C.
- Sea Level Rise Implications:
- Sea levels increase faster under higher-emission pathways, exacerbating coastal flooding and habitat loss.
- SSP5 projects the most dramatic rise due to its reliance on fossil fuels.
- Timing of GHG Reductions:
- Earlier and more substantial reductions reduce the risk of reaching irreversible climate thresholds.
- Delay in action under higher scenarios (e.g., SSP3 and SSP5) increases the difficulty and cost of mitigation.
Practical Applications of the Scenarios:
- Policy Guidance:
- Helps governments set emission reduction targets and timelines.
- Informs international agreements, such as the Paris Agreement's aim to limit warming to 1.5–2°C.
- Economic Planning:
- Allows industries to assess risks and opportunities under different future scenarios.
- Encourages investment in renewable energy and carbon sequestration technologies.
- Risk Management:
- Assists vulnerable regions in preparing for sea-level rise and extreme weather events.
- Supports adaptation planning for food security, health, and water resources.
Challenges and Limitations:
- Uncertainty:
- Scenarios depend on assumptions about technological advancements, policy effectiveness, and socioeconomic trends.
- Equity:
- High-emission pathways exacerbate inequalities, disproportionately affecting low-income nations.
- Global Coordination:
- Requires unprecedented collaboration to transition toward sustainability (e.g., SSP1).
Application of skills: Investigate graphs of the IPCC scenarios and their implications.
6.3.9 Technology is being developed and implemented to aid in the mitigation of climate change.
- Describe how smart cities utilize technology to mitigate climate change.
- Explain how socially embedded technologies in homes can reduce carbon emissions.
- Evaluate the role of industry-supported research in advancing carbon capture and storage technologies. (
- Discuss the opportunities and challenges of implementing smart city technologies in a named society.
Technology plays a pivotal role in mitigating climate change by reducing emissions and promoting energy efficiency. Innovations range from socially embedded technologies in smart cities to advanced industrial and personal solutions.
Technological Innovations in Climate Mitigation1. Socially Embedded Technologies:
Benefits of Technology in Mitigation:
Challenges:
Technological Innovations in Climate Mitigation1. Socially Embedded Technologies:
- Smart Cities:
- Use sensors and mobile apps to optimize urban resource management.
- Examples:
- Apps that locate the nearest charging station or recycling center.
- Sensors to monitor waste levels, ensuring efficient collection.
- Traffic management systems to reduce congestion and emissions.
- Real-time updates on public transport to encourage its use over private vehicles.
- Smart Homes:
- Allow residents to manage energy usage efficiently:
- Example: Solar energy integration with smart devices to maximize daytime energy use.
- Heat pumps calibrated with solar systems for sustainable heating and cooling.
- Allow residents to manage energy usage efficiently:
- University and Research Center Innovations:
- Partner with industries to develop technologies for carbon reduction and removal.
- Example: Advanced carbon capture and storage (CCS) systems.
- Energy Solutions:
- Renewable energy advancements:
- Improved solar panels with higher efficiency.
- Offshore wind farms designed to withstand extreme weather.
- Battery storage technologies:
- Enable better integration of renewable energy into power grids.
- Renewable energy advancements:
- Mobile Apps:
- Help individuals monitor their carbon footprint:
- Track energy use, travel emissions, or product lifecycle impacts.
- Provide actionable advice for reducing personal emissions.
- Help individuals monitor their carbon footprint:
- Smart Devices:
- IoT-enabled devices for homes and businesses optimize energy usage and lower emissions.
Benefits of Technology in Mitigation:
- Efficiency Gains:
- Reduces energy waste in homes, industries, and urban systems.
- Behavioral Change:
- Encourages sustainable practices through accessible data and insights.
- Scalability:
- Can be implemented across various sectors and scales, from individual homes to entire cities.
Challenges:
- Accessibility and Equity:
- High upfront costs may limit access in developing nations or underserved communities.
- Data Privacy Concerns:
- Increased use of sensors and apps raises questions about citizen data security.
- Technological Reliance:
- Overreliance on technology without addressing systemic changes may limit long-term effectiveness.
Case Study: Smart City Technology in Copenhagen, Denmark:
- Smart Grids:
- Integrate renewable energy sources like wind and solar into the city’s power grid.
- Example: Real-time monitoring of energy production and consumption ensures efficient distribution.
- Mobility Solutions:
- Extensive use of cycling apps and sensors to enhance bike-sharing systems.
- Traffic light systems prioritize bicycles and public transportation.
- Waste Management:
- Smart sensors monitor waste levels in bins, reducing unnecessary collection trips and associated emissions.
- Impact:
- Copenhagen aims to be carbon-neutral by 2025, leveraging technology to achieve its ambitious targets.
Activity: Consider the implementation of one technology to mitigate climate change in a named society.
6.3.10 There are challenges to overcome in implementing climate management and intervention strategies.
- Describe two challenges faced by low-income countries in implementing climate management strategies.
- Explain how international inequalities create barriers to global climate change mitigation.
- Evaluate the impact of leadership gaps across stakeholders on the effectiveness of climate policies.
- Discuss how generational and geographic divides influence public and political attitudes toward climate change
Climate management and intervention strategies face significant challenges due to social, economic, and political barriers. These challenges hinder the global and local implementation of effective solutions, delaying progress in mitigating climate change.
Key Challenges and Barriers
1. Lack of Belief in the Seriousness of Climate Change:
Key Challenges and Barriers
1. Lack of Belief in the Seriousness of Climate Change:
- Public Skepticism:
- Some individuals and groups deny or downplay the impacts of climate change.
- Causes include misinformation, lack of education, or reliance on fossil fuel-driven narratives.
- Impact:
- Reduces public pressure on governments and corporations to act.
- Slows adoption of mitigation and adaptation policies
2. Financial Constraints:
- National Budgets:
- Many governments lack the financial resources to invest in large-scale mitigation projects, such as renewable energy infrastructure or carbon capture technologies.
- Competing priorities, such as healthcare and education, often take precedence in budget allocations.
- Planning Deficits:
- Poor financial planning hampers the ability to secure long-term funding for climate initiatives.
- Impact:
- Developing countries, in particular, struggle to implement effective strategies due to limited resources.
3. Leadership Gaps:
- Lack of Stakeholder Leadership:
- Political Leaders:
- Failure to enact robust climate policies due to political interests or short-term economic goals.
- Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs):
- Limited influence in regions where governments or corporations dominate climate-related decisions.
- Transnational Corporations:
- Many businesses prioritize profits over sustainability, resisting shifts to greener practices.
- Individuals:
- Lack of awareness or willingness to adopt climate-friendly lifestyles.
- Political Leaders:
4. International Inequalities:
- Economic Disparities:
- Economies heavily reliant on fossil fuels face greater challenges transitioning to renewable energy.
- Low-income countries bear the brunt of climate impacts (e.g., rising sea levels, extreme weather) despite contributing minimally to global emissions.
- Climate Justice:
- High-income countries have more resources to adapt, exacerbating inequalities.
- Impact:
- Divides between nations slow collective progress and create mistrust in international agreements.
5. Differences in Perspective:
Overcoming Barriers:
- Generational Divide:
- Younger Generations:
- Tend to prioritize climate action, motivated by concerns for the future.
- Older Generations:
- May focus on immediate needs and resist changes that disrupt established lifestyles.
- Younger Generations:
- Geographic Divide:
- Coastal and Low-Lying Communities:
- Experience direct threats from sea-level rise and advocate for urgent action.
- Inland and Upland Communities:
- May perceive climate risks as less immediate and prioritize other issues.
- Coastal and Low-Lying Communities:
Overcoming Barriers:
- Education and Awareness:
- Increase public understanding of climate change impacts through campaigns and school curricula.
- Financial Solutions:
- Establish international funds like the Loss and Damage Fund to support low-income countries.
- Governments can incentivize private sector investments in sustainable technologies.
- Global Cooperation:
- Foster equitable policies that balance economic needs with climate goals.
- Promote climate justice by holding high-income nations accountable for emissions reductions.
Case Study: Challenges in Bangladesh vs. the United States:
- Bangladesh:
- Financial and resource constraints limit the implementation of large-scale adaptation strategies like flood barriers.
- Low-lying regions face disproportionate impacts from sea-level rise, with limited support from high-income nations.
- United States:
- Political polarization hinders consensus on climate policies.
- Resistance from fossil fuel industries and certain inland communities slows the transition to renewable energy.
6.3.11 Geoengineering is a mitigation strategy for climate change, treating the symptom not the
cause.
cause.
- Define geoengineering and outline two examples of its strategies.
- Explain how solar radiation management (SRM) strategies work to mitigate climate change.
- Evaluate the potential benefits and risks of geoengineering as a climate mitigation strategy.
- Discuss the ethical and geopolitical implications of deploying geoengineering technologies.
Geoengineering refers to deliberate, large-scale interventions in the Earth’s climate system to mitigate climate change.
It focuses on treating the symptoms of climate change (e.g., rising temperatures) rather than addressing its root causes (e.g., greenhouse gas emissions).
Geoengineering Strategies
1. Solar Radiation Management (SRM):
Arguments for Geoengineering
1. Rapid Climate Mitigation:
2. Mitigating Irreversible Climate Impacts:
3. Flexibility Across Scales:
4. Innovative Research Opportunities:
Arguments Against Geoengineering
1. Treats the Symptom, Not the Cause:
2. Uncertainty of Impacts:
4. Geopolitical and Ethical Issues:
5. Lack of Convincing Trials:
It focuses on treating the symptoms of climate change (e.g., rising temperatures) rather than addressing its root causes (e.g., greenhouse gas emissions).
Geoengineering Strategies
1. Solar Radiation Management (SRM):
- Objective: Reflect solar radiation back into space to cool the planet.
- Examples:
- Stratospheric Aerosols:
- Releasing reflective particles into the upper atmosphere to reduce sunlight.
- Space Mirrors:
- Large mirrors in space to deflect solar radiation.
- Cloud Seeding:
- Injecting chemicals into clouds to increase their reflectivity.
- Stratospheric Aerosols:
- Objective: Extract and store CO₂ from the atmosphere.
- Examples:
- Ocean Fertilization:
- Adding nutrients to ocean waters to promote phytoplankton growth, which absorbs CO₂ through photosynthesis.
- Bioenergy with Carbon Capture and Storage (BECCS):
- Burning biomass for energy while capturing and storing the resulting CO₂ underground.
- Direct Air Capture (DAC):
- Machines that extract CO₂ directly from the air.
- Ocean Fertilization:
Arguments for Geoengineering
1. Rapid Climate Mitigation:
- Can reduce global temperatures quickly, particularly through SRM strategies.
- Useful as an emergency measure to buy time for long-term solutions, such as transitioning to renewable energy.
2. Mitigating Irreversible Climate Impacts:
- Slows catastrophic events, such as Arctic ice melting or coral reef bleaching.
- Potential to stabilize ecosystems affected by rising temperatures.
3. Flexibility Across Scales:
- Scalable technologies, such as BECCS and DAC, allow for deployment in different regions or globally.
- Provides an alternative for countries with limited renewable energy resources.
4. Innovative Research Opportunities:
- Advances understanding of Earth’s climate systems.
- Encourages collaboration among nations and industries to develop viable technologies.
Arguments Against Geoengineering
1. Treats the Symptom, Not the Cause:
- Does not address the underlying problem of excessive greenhouse gas emissions.
- Risks perpetuating dependence on fossil fuels instead of driving systemic change.
2. Uncertainty of Impacts:
- Potential for unintended and unpredictable side effects:
- Disruption of weather patterns (e.g., monsoons, droughts).
- Ocean acidification from poorly managed ocean fertilization
- Many technologies, such as space mirrors and DAC, are expensive to develop, deploy, and maintain.
- Economic resources could be redirected toward proven solutions like renewable energy.
4. Geopolitical and Ethical Issues:
- Risks of unilateral action by powerful nations or corporations without global consent.
- Could exacerbate inequalities between regions, with some benefiting while others face negative consequences.
5. Lack of Convincing Trials:
- Few large-scale tests have been conducted, leaving doubts about feasibility and scalability.
- Public and political hesitancy due to limited evidence of success.
Case Study: Stratospheric Aerosols
- Pros:
- Mimics natural cooling effects observed after volcanic eruptions (e.g., Mount Pinatubo, 1991).
- Relatively cost-effective compared to other geoengineering methods.
- Cons:
- Potential to disrupt monsoon systems, threatening agriculture in Asia and Africa.
- Could create dependency on continuous aerosol injections, as stopping would cause rapid warming.
6.3.12 A range of stakeholders play an important role in changing perspectives on climate change.
- Define a stakeholder and outline two examples of their influence on perspectives of climate change.
- Explain how local community groups and NGOs can work together to influence public attitudes about climate change.
- Evaluate the role of the media in shaping public perspectives on climate change.
- Discuss the challenges stakeholders face in influencing diverse perspectives on climate change globally.
A stakeholder refers to any individual, group, or organization with an interest or influence in a specific issue. On climate change, stakeholders play a vital role in shaping public awareness, attitudes, and actions.
Key Stakeholders and Their Influence
1. Charismatic Individuals:
2. Local Community Groups:
3. Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs):
4. Media:
5. Educational Institutions:
Challenges in Stakeholder Influence:
Key Stakeholders and Their Influence
1. Charismatic Individuals:
- Definition:
- Influential leaders or figures who use their platform to advocate for climate action.
- Examples:
- Greta Thunberg:
- Her "Fridays for Future" movement mobilized millions of young people globally to demand climate action.
- David Attenborough:
- His documentaries like Our Planet educate audiences about the fragility of ecosystems and the urgency of climate action.
- Greta Thunberg:
- Impact:
- Inspire individuals, particularly youth, to adopt sustainable lifestyles and advocate for systemic changes.
2. Local Community Groups:
- Definition:
- Grassroots organizations addressing specific climate issues in their region.
- Examples:
- Citizen Science Projects:
- Encourage community participation in collecting data on climate-related issues (e.g., water quality, tree planting).
- Urban Greening Initiatives:
- Promote local actions like creating community gardens or restoring wetlands.
- Citizen Science Projects:
- Impact:
- Provide relatable, hands-on solutions that empower individuals to act locally.
3. Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs):
- Definition:
- Organizations that work independently of governments to address global and local challenges.
- Examples:
- World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF):
- Raises awareness through campaigns, such as Earth Hour, and advocates for policy changes.
- Greenpeace:
- Combines activism with education to pressure governments and corporations for climate action.
- World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF):
- Impact:
- Influence public opinion and push for broader systemic changes through advocacy and education.
4. Media:
- Definition:
- Platforms that disseminate information and shape public discourse.
- Examples:
- Documentaries:
- Films like Before the Flood or An Inconvenient Truth educate global audiences about climate risks and solutions.
- Social Media:
- Platforms like Instagram and TikTok amplify grassroots movements and share sustainable practices.
- Documentaries:
- Impact:
- Can rapidly spread climate-related information (or misinformation), shaping public attitudes positively or negatively.
5. Educational Institutions:
- Definition:
- Schools, colleges, and universities incorporating climate education into curricula.
- Examples:
- Primary and Secondary Schools:
- Integrate climate topics into subjects like geography, science, and social studies.
- Universities:
- Conduct climate research and host events to promote awareness.
- Primary and Secondary Schools:
- Impact:
- Foster informed, scientifically literate citizens capable of making sustainable choices.
Challenges in Stakeholder Influence:
- Misinformation:
- Some media outlets or organizations spread climate misinformation, confusing public understanding.
- Engagement Gaps:
- Hard-to-reach demographics may remain uninfluenced, especially in regions with limited access to education or resources.
- Competing Priorities:
- Stakeholders advocating for immediate economic growth may undermine climate-focused perspectives.
6.3.13 Perspectives on the necessity, practicality and urgency of action on climate change will vary between individuals and between societies.
- Describe how perspectives on climate action differ between developed and developing societies.
- Explain the challenges coastal communities face in advocating for urgent climate action compared to inland communities.
- Evaluate the role of fossil fuel dependence in shaping national perspectives on the necessity of climate action.
- Discuss how generational differences influence public and political attitudes toward the urgency of climate action.
Perspectives on climate action vary widely based on factors such as geography, age, socioeconomic status, and dependence on fossil fuels. These differences influence how individuals and societies perceive the urgency and feasibility of mitigating climate change.
Key Perspectives
1. Age Groups:
Key Perspectives
1. Age Groups:
- Younger Generations:
- Tend to prioritize climate action due to long-term concerns about their future.
- Active in climate movements, such as Fridays for Future, advocating for immediate systemic changes.
- More receptive to adopting sustainable lifestyles and supporting policies for renewable energy.
- Older Generations:
- May focus on immediate economic stability or maintaining current standards of living.
- Often skeptical of the necessity or feasibility of drastic measures.
- Concerns about potential disruptions to established industries and jobs.
2. Developed vs. Developing Societies:
3. Coastal vs. Inland Communities:
4. Fossil Fuel Economies vs. Non-Fossil Fuel Economies:
Challenges in Reconciling Perspectives:
- Developed Societies:
- Have greater resources and infrastructure to invest in renewable energy and climate mitigation strategies.
- Tend to view climate action as both a responsibility and an opportunity for innovation and green economy growth.
- Some sectors resist action due to high costs or perceived economic trade-offs.
- Developing Societies:
- Face immediate challenges like poverty, healthcare, and education, often prioritizing these over long-term climate goals.
- Disproportionately affected by climate change (e.g., extreme weather, sea-level rise) despite contributing minimally to global emissions.
- Rely on financial and technical support from developed nations for meaningful climate action.
3. Coastal vs. Inland Communities:
- Coastal Communities:
- View climate change as an immediate threat due to rising sea levels, coastal erosion, and increased storm surges.
- Advocate for urgent adaptation measures, such as seawalls, mangrove restoration, and relocation strategies.
- Example: Small island nations, like the Maldives, actively push for global emissions reductions to prevent catastrophic impacts.
- Inland Communities:
- May perceive climate risks as less immediate or relevant, focusing instead on issues like agriculture, water availability, or extreme heat.
- Support for climate action may vary based on the visibility of climate impacts in their region.
4. Fossil Fuel Economies vs. Non-Fossil Fuel Economies:
- Fossil Fuel Economies:
- Reluctant to transition due to economic dependence on fossil fuel industries (e.g., oil, gas, and coal).
- Concerns about job losses, reduced GDP, and geopolitical influence.
- Example: Countries like Saudi Arabia and Russia often resist stringent climate targets.
- Non-Fossil Fuel Economies:
- More supportive of renewable energy adoption as an economic and environmental opportunity.
- Example: Nations like Denmark and Costa Rica lead in renewable energy development and emissions reduction.
Challenges in Reconciling Perspectives:
- Economic Priorities:
- Nations prioritize economic growth over long-term climate goals, especially in fossil fuel-dependent economies.
- Inequality:
- Developing countries demand equity and climate justice, expecting developed nations to shoulder more responsibility.
- Political Resistance:
- Opposition from industries or groups benefiting from the status quo slows progress.
- Public Awareness:
- Misinformation and varying education levels create disparities in understanding the urgency of climate action.
6.3.14 The concept of the tragedy of the commons suggests that catastrophic climate change is
likely unless there is international cooperation on an unprecedented scale.
likely unless there is international cooperation on an unprecedented scale.
- Define the concept of the tragedy of the commons and describe how it applies to climate change.
- Explain the challenges of achieving international cooperation in addressing climate change.
- Evaluate the effectiveness of international agreements like the Paris Agreement in addressing the tragedy of the commons.
- Discuss the role of equity and responsibility in overcoming the tragedy of the commons in global climate governance.

The tragedy of the commons describes how shared resources are overexploited when individuals or nations act in their own self-interest rather than considering the collective good. In the context of climate change, the atmosphere is a shared resource. Actions that benefit one nation (e.g., burning fossil fuels for economic growth) can harm the global atmosphere, with costs distributed across all nations and ecosystems.
Key Concepts
1. Exploitation of Shared Resources:
Key Concepts
1. Exploitation of Shared Resources:
- Burning Fossil Fuels:
- Nations reliant on fossil fuels for energy and industrial growth often prioritize short-term economic benefits over global environmental concerns.
- Example: Rapid industrialization in some nations leads to increased GHG emissions that impact the global climate.
- Deforestation:
- Clearing forests for agriculture or industry benefits local economies but reduces global carbon sequestration capacity.
- Costs of Harm:
- The environmental degradation caused by one nation’s activities is borne globally through effects such as rising sea levels, extreme weather, and biodiversity loss.
- Example: Small island nations disproportionately suffer from sea-level rise caused by emissions from industrialized countries.
- Costs of Restoration:
- Actions like carbon capture and storage (CCS) or reforestation often fall on individual nations or entities, while the benefits are global.
- Example: A country investing heavily in CCS technology reduces atmospheric CO₂, benefiting all nations regardless of their contributions
Comparison of Costs and Benefits for Developed vs. Developing Nations
Importance of International Cooperation:
- Shared Responsibility:
- The atmosphere belongs to everyone, and its protection requires collective action.
- Example: The Paris Agreement aims to unite nations in limiting global warming to below 2°C.
- Global Solutions for Global Problems:
- International agreements, such as carbon trading schemes or funding mechanisms like the Green Climate Fund, promote equitable burden-sharing.
- Addressing Inequalities:
- High-income nations must support low-income nations in transitioning to sustainable practices through financial and technological aid.
Challenges to Cooperation:
- Economic Disparities:
- Fossil fuel-dependent economies resist transitions due to economic and political pressures.
- Developing nations may lack resources for mitigation or adaptation without external support.
- Political Tensions:
- Disagreements between nations on emission targets, accountability, and funding mechanisms hinder progress.
- Free-Rider Problem:
- Nations may avoid costly climate action, assuming others will bear the burden, while still benefiting from global efforts.
Examples of International Cooperation:
- Montreal Protocol and Kigali Amendment:
- Successful global effort to reduce ozone-depleting substances, demonstrating the potential for collective action.
- Paris Agreement:
- Established a framework for nations to commit to reducing emissions through Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs).
- Green Climate Fund:
- Supports developing countries in mitigation and adaptation efforts, addressing equity concerns.
Key Terms
Climate change mitigation
Adaptation strategies Geoengineering Carbon capture and storage (CCS) Carbon pricing HLONY Geoengineering hared Socioeconomic Pathways (SSPs) Solar Radiation Management (SRM) Afforestation and reforestation Bioenergy with Carbon Capture and Storage (BECCS) Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM) Net zero emissions Free-rider problem Carbon leakage International climate governance Katowice Rulebook Tragedy of the commons |
Carbon trading (Cap-and-Trade)
Renewable energy Smart cities Smart homes Circular economy |
Paris Agreement
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) Green Climate Fund Loss and Damage Fund Sustainability |
Classroom Materials
NOTE: There are issues with downloading these documents. I am working on trying to fix the issue. If you need these immediately, please feel free to email me.

Subtopic 6.3 Climate Change—Mitigation and Adaptation Presentation.pptx | |
File Size: | 9031 kb |
File Type: | pptx |

Subtopic 6.2 Climate Change—causes and Impacts Workbook.docx | |
File Size: | 5147 kb |
File Type: | docx |
The Al Gore Case on Optimism activity
Petition(Kyoto Protocol) Case study
Young People Sue of Climate Change article
Case Study Research Responses GCC
Poles Apart on Climate Change article
Evaluating Climate Change Talks activity
Evaluating Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies activity
Case Studies
- Examples of carbon dioxide removal techniques (UN-REDD, biomass, CSS)
- Two detailed examples of mitigation AND adaptation strategies in a named city/country (eg. the Thames Barrier in London)
- Detailed examples of international efforts to address climate change, including: the Kyoto Protocol, the Paris Agreement, the IPCC
Correct use of terminology is a key skill in ESS. It is essential to use key terms correctly when communicating your understanding, particularly in assessments. Use the quizlet flashcards or other tools such as learn, scatter, space race, speller and test to help you master the vocabulary.
Useful Links
UNEP climate change mitigation
IPCC mitigation and adaptation
Global Change report
NASA
Climate Change 2007: Working Group II: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability
Let's Talk Energy
Direct Agriculture Emissions
In The News
Could climate change cause humans and animals to SHRINK? Mammals became smaller due to global warming 54 million years ago - MailOnline 15 March 2017
New algae-based bioreactor can swallow carbon dioxide 400x faster than trees - Digital Trends, Sep 2019
International-mindedness:
- The impacts of climate change are global and require global mitigation
TOK:
- There is a degree of uncertainty in the extent and effect of climate change-how can we be confident of the ethical responsibilities that may arise from knowledge when that knowledge is often provisional or incomplete
Video Clip
Today humanity produces more than 1,400 tons of carbon every minute. To combat climate change, we need to reduce fossil fuel emissions, and draw down excess CO2 to restore the balance of greenhouse gases. Like all plants, trees consume atmospheric carbon through photosynthesis. So what can trees do to help in this fight? Jean-François Bastin digs into the efforts to restore depleted ecosystems.
Climate change has already had clear impacts on natural and human systems. Over the coming decades, based on the various scenarios of emission of greenhouse gases, the range with which climate can change is quite wide, and depends on policy decisions that we take now
The GEF Small Grants Programme supports projects that address climate change mitigation, which is reducing or avoiding the emission of greenhouse gases; and climate change adaptation, which is assisting communities, especially in developing countries to become better able to cope with the negative impacts of climate change.
The impacts of climate change destroy people's livelihoods and homes. They damage our infrastructure and disrupt communication and trade. Moreover, climate change is endangering development successes and the poor and marginalized are often affected the most. Even if we were to stop emissions instantly, the world would not stop warming immediately due to the amount of gases we have already emitted. That's why we must do both: reduce greenhouse gas emissions and adapt to inevitable climate change. But how can we adapt, considering that the precise extent and form of climate change aren't known?
There’s technically a way to take pollution out of the air. But if we did that, where would we put it all?
Carbon Capture and Storage