ESS Subtopic 7.1: Resource Use in Society

Topic 7.1: natural resources - uses and management

Image from tjameschawke.wordpress.com

Ecologically minded economists describe resources as “natural capital”. If properly managed, renewable and replenishable resources are forms of wealth that can produce “natural income” indefinitely in the form of valuable goods and services.
This income may consist of marketable commodities such as timber and grain (goods) or may be in the form of ecological services such as the flood and erosion protection provided by forests (services). Similarly, non-renewable resources can be considered in parallel to those
forms of economic capital that cannot.

In this unit we will look at the three classes of natural capital, understand how cultural, economic, technological and other factors influence the status of a resource.

This unit is a minimum of 3 hours.

Guiding Questions

How does the renewability of natural capital have implications for its sustainable use?
How might societies reconcile competing perspectives on natural resource use?
To what extent can human societies use natural resources sustainably?

Understanding:

natural resources

7.1.1 Natural resources are the raw materials and sources of energy used and consumed by society

Define the term "natural resources."
List three examples of renewable natural resources and three examples of non-renewable natural resources.
Describe how sunlight and water function as renewable natural resources.

https://www.yourdictionary.com/articles/world-natural-resources-examples

Natural resources are the foundation of life on Earth and the backbone of human civilization. They include both the raw materials and the sources of energy that are essential for survival, development, and technological advancement. This understanding focuses on the different types of natural resources that are vital to society and how they are used and consumed.

Natural Resources: These are materials and energy sources found in nature that humans use for various purposes, including food, shelter, energy, and industrial production.

Categories of Natural Resources:

Biotic Resources: Derived from living things (e.g., forests, animals, plants).
Abiotic Resources: Derived from non-living things (e.g., sunlight, air, water, land, rocks).
Renewable Resources: Resources that can be replenished naturally over short periods of time (e.g., sunlight, wind, water).
Non-Renewable Resources: Resources that exist in finite quantities and are not replenished on a human timescale (e.g., fossil fuels, minerals).

Types of Natural Resources

Sunlight: The ultimate source of energy for life on Earth, driving photosynthesis, weather patterns, and solar power technologies.
Air: Composed mainly of nitrogen and oxygen, air is vital for respiration, weather systems, and as a medium for sound and flight.
Water: Essential for drinking, agriculture, industry, and supporting ecosystems. Water is also a source of energy (hydropower) and a habitat for numerous species.
Land: Includes soil and minerals, land is used for agriculture, urban development, and as a base for ecosystems.
Rocks and Minerals: Used in construction, manufacturing, and technology. They are the foundation of Earth's physical structure and provide valuable resources like metals and gemstones.
Ecosystems and Living Things: Forests, oceans, and other ecosystems provide food, oxygen, and a variety of resources like timber, fish, and medicinal plants.

7.1.2 Natural capital is the stock of natural resources available on Earth.

Define the term "natural capital."
List three types of natural capital and provide one example for each.

Natural capital refers to the stock of natural resources on Earth, which includes all living and non-living elements that provide goods and services to society. These resources are essential for sustaining life, supporting economies, and maintaining ecological balance. This understanding will explore the concept of natural capital, its significance, and provide local examples of its three main types: renewable, non-renewable, and replenishable resources.

Types of Natural Capital:

Renewable Natural Capital: Resources that can be regenerated naturally over time, such as forests, fisheries, and freshwater systems.
Non-Renewable Natural Capital: Resources that exist in finite quantities and are not replenished on a human timescale, such as fossil fuels and minerals.
Replenishable Natural Capital: Resources that are intermediate between renewable and non-renewable;they are replaceable but take time to regenerate, such as groundwater and soil.

https://www.savannahriverkeeper.org/the-savannah-river.html

Local Examples of Natural Capital

Renewable Natural Capital
- Chattahoochee National Forest:
  - This vast forest in northern Georgia provides timber, recreational opportunities, and habitat for a wide variety of wildlife. It plays a crucial role in water regulation and air purification and is an essential resource for local communities and ecosystems.
- Savannah River:
  - The Savannah River is a vital waterway that supplies drinking water, supports agriculture, and is a source of hydropower. It also provides habitat for numerous species and recreational opportunities for residents and visitors.
- Coastal Wetlands:
  - Georgia's coastal wetlands, including the Okefenokee Swamp, are critical for biodiversity, acting as breeding grounds for fish and birds. These wetlands also provide natural flood control and water filtration services.

https://news.gsu.edu/2018/12/14/rare-earth-elements-discovered-in-georgia-kaolin-mines-study-finds/

Non-Renewable Natural Capital
- Kaolin Clay Deposits:
  - Georgia is known for its extensive kaolin clay deposits, particularly in the central part of the state. Kaolin is used in various industries, including paper production, ceramics, and pharmaceuticals. As a non-renewable resource, the extraction of kaolin has significant economic importance but also presents sustainability challenges.

Granite Quarries:
- The Elberton area in Georgia is famous for its granite quarries, which produce high-quality stone used in construction and monuments. Granite is a non-renewable resource, and its extraction is vital to the local economy.
- Fossil Fuels:
  - While not as prominent as in other states, Georgia has some coal deposits and natural gas reserves. These fossil fuels are used for energy production, though they are finite resources with environmental impacts associated with their extraction and use.

https://longleafalliance.org/what-is-longleaf/the-ecosystem/habitats/

Replenishable Natural Capital
- Longleaf Pine Ecosystems:
  - Once widespread across Georgia, longleaf pine forests are an example of replenishable natural capital. These ecosystems support biodiversity, including endangered species like the red-cockaded woodpecker. Restoration efforts are ongoing to replenish these forests through controlled burns and replanting.
- Floridan Aquifer:
  - The Floridan Aquifer is a crucial source of groundwater for southern Georgia, providing water for agriculture, drinking, and industrial uses. It is a replenishable resource, but careful management is needed to prevent overuse and contamination.
- Agricultural Land in the Piedmont Region:
  - The fertile soil in Georgia’s Piedmont region supports a variety of crops, including peaches, peanuts, and cotton. While soil is replenishable, its productivity depends on sustainable farming practices like crop rotation, cover cropping, and reduced tillage to prevent erosion and degradation

Activity: Other than the examples listed here, research additional examples of natural capital

7.1.3 Natural capital provides natural income in terms of goods and services.

Define the term "ecosystem services."
Compare goods and services
Discuss the importance of ecosystem services in supporting human life

Natural capital provides what is known as natural income, which refers to the flow of goods and services that ecosystems generate. These goods and services are vital for human well-being, economic activities, and the health of the environment. This understanding focuses on how natural capital translates into natural income, with examples of both goods (tangible products) and services (intangible benefits) that ecosystems provide.

Key Concepts

Natural Income: The annual yield or flow of goods and services produced by natural capital. This can include tangible goods like timber or fish and intangible services like climate regulation and flood prevention.
Goods: Goods are tangible, physical items derived from natural resources, such as timber, fiber, food, and minerals. These can include renewable goods, like fish, timber, or ozone, which can replenish naturally over time, and non-renewable resources, such as fossil fuels or metal ores, which exist in finite quantities.
Services: Services are the vital, life-supporting functions provided by ecosystems, such as water replenishment, flood control, and erosion prevention. These services are collectively known as Ecosystem Services and can be categorized into four main types, with goods being considered one of these categories. Ecosystem Services are essential for maintaining the health and balance of our environment, supporting both natural processes and human well-being

Examples of Natural Income Goods

Fish:
- Example: Fisheries provide fish as a source of food and economic activity. In Georgia, the coastal waters and rivers support commercial and recreational fishing industries.
- Importance: Fish are a renewable resource when managed properly, contributing to food security and employment.
Timber:
- Example: Forests, such as those in the Chattahoochee National Forest, produce timber for construction, furniture, and paper products.
- Importance: Timber is a renewable resource that supports various industries, provided that forests are managed sustainably to prevent deforestation and degradation.

Examples of Natural Income Services

Climate Regulation:
- Example: Forests and oceans play a critical role in regulating the Earth’s climate by absorbing carbon dioxide and releasing oxygen. The forests in Georgia contribute to this global service by acting as carbon sinks.
- Importance: Climate regulation is crucial for maintaining a stable environment, which underpins all economic and social activities.
Flood Prevention:
- Example: Wetlands, such as those found along Georgia’s coast, act as natural barriers that absorb and slow down water flow, reducing the impact of floods.
- Importance: Flood prevention protects infrastructure, agricultural land, and communities, reducing the need for costly man-made flood defenses.

7.1.4 The terms “natural capital” and “natural income” imply a particular perspective on nature.

Compare the anthropocentric and ecocentric perspectives on the use of natural capital and natural income, highlighting their differing values and approaches
Discuss the implications of adopting an anthropocentric perspective on natural capital for environmental conservation efforts.

The terms “natural capital” and “natural income” are rooted in a specific way of perceiving nature, where the natural world is viewed as a stock of resources that can generate goods and services for human use. This perspective, while practical and useful for resource management and sustainability, also carries philosophical implications. It raises important questions about the relationship between humans and nature, particularly the extent to which nature should be viewed as a resource for human exploitation.

Philosophical Implications

Anthropocentric Perspective: Viewing nature as natural capital can reinforce an anthropocentric worldview, where nature is seen as existing primarily for human use and benefit. This extreme perspective can lead to exploitation if not balanced with considerations for the intrinsic value of nature.
Contentious Issues: This perspective may be criticized for reducing nature to merely a collection of resources, ignoring its intrinsic value and the rights of non-human entities. It raises ethical questions about the extent to which humans have the right to exploit natural resources for their own ends.

Benefits of the Natural Capital Model

Sustainable Resource Management: The natural capital model helps promote sustainable use of resources by valuing the natural income ecosystems provide. This approach supports decisions that balance economic growth with environmental protection.
Economic and Environmental Integration: By recognizing the economic value of ecosystem services, this model integrates environmental considerations into economic planning, encouraging investment in conservation and sustainable practices.

Challenges and Ethical Considerations

Balancing Use and Conservation: The main challenge is to use natural capital sustainably without reducing nature to merely an economic asset. Ethical considerations are crucial to prevent environmental degradation and biodiversity loss.
Alternative Perspectives: While effective, the natural capital model should be complemented by perspectives like ecocentrism, which values nature for its intrinsic worth, beyond its utility to humans.

ecosystem services

7.1.5 Ecosystems provide life-supporting ecosystem services.

Define the term "ecosystem services"
List four examples of ecosystem services and briefly describe the role each plays in supporting life on Earth.

Ecosystems play a crucial role in sustaining life on Earth by providing a range of life-supporting services that are essential for the survival of all living organisms, including humans. These services include water replenishment, flood and erosion protection, pollution mitigation, and carbon sequestration. Understanding these ecosystem services is vital for recognizing the interconnectedness of natural systems and the importance of conserving and managing ecosystems sustainably.

Ecologically minded economists describe resources as “natural capital”. If properly managed, renewable and replenishable resources are forms of wealth that can produce “natural income” indefinitely in the form of valuable goods and services.

marketable commodities such as timber and grain (goods)
ecological services such as the flood and erosion protection provided by forests (services).
non-renewable resources cannot generate wealth without liquidation of the estate.

Humans rely on these ecosystem services for clean water, food production, climate regulation, and disaster protection. The degradation of these services can lead to severe consequences, including reduced food security, increased vulnerability to natural disasters, and the exacerbation of climate change.

Removing natural vegetation has a “cost”: Loss of carbon uptake, disruption of water and nutrient cycles and even just the loss of the aesthetic value all have a cost. The difficult part of natural capital is prescribing a “value” in economic terms to the goods and services the biosphere provides.

Ecosystem services are generally categorized into provisioning, regulating, cultural, and supporting services. Life-supporting services, as covered in this subtopic, primarily fall under the regulating and supporting categories.

Water Replenishment
- Description: Ecosystems like forests, wetlands, and watersheds play a key role in the natural water cycle by absorbing rainfall, replenishing groundwater, and maintaining stream flows. This service ensures a steady supply of fresh water, which is crucial for drinking, agriculture, and industry.
- Example: The Okefenokee Swamp in Georgia acts as a natural reservoir, replenishing groundwater supplies and maintaining water levels in surrounding rivers and streams.
Flood and Erosion Protection
- Description: Wetlands, mangroves, forests, and coastal ecosystems help protect against floods and erosion by absorbing excess water, stabilizing soil, and reducing the force of waves and storm surges. These services protect infrastructure, agriculture, and human communities from natural disasters.
- Example: The coastal marshes of Georgia help buffer inland areas from storm surges and prevent soil erosion along the coastline.
Pollution Mitigation
- Description: Ecosystems such as wetlands, forests, and grasslands help filter and break down pollutants, improving air and water quality. For instance, reed beds and buffer zones can remove inorganic nutrients from agricultural runoff, preventing eutrophication and maintaining healthy aquatic ecosystems.
- Example: Reed bed systems are used in some agricultural areas to filter out excess nitrogen and phosphorus from runoff before it reaches water bodies, thereby preventing harmful algal blooms and protecting aquatic life.
Carbon Sequestration
- Description: Forests, grasslands, and ocean ecosystems absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and store it in biomass and soils, helping to regulate the global climate and mitigate climate change. This service is critical in reducing the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
- Example: The forests in Georgia’s Chattahoochee National Forest sequester large amounts of carbon, playing a vital role in mitigating the effects of climate change.

Source: Asian Development Bank (ADB). 2017. Opportunities for Investing in Sustainable Natural Capital in Asia Pacific. Consultant’s report. Manila (TA 8564 Regional).

7.1.6 All resources are finite. Resources can be classified as either renewable or non-renewable.

Describe and explain, using examples what non- renewable natural capital is
Is it ever ethical to use non-renewable resources? Justify your answer

All resources on Earth are finite, meaning there is a limited amount of each resource available for use. Resources can be broadly classified into two categories: renewable and non-renewable. Renewable resources have the capacity to regenerate or be replenished through natural processes, allowing them to be used sustainably—provided their usage does not exceed their rate of regeneration. However, if renewable resources are exploited beyond their natural replenishment rate, they effectively become non-renewable, leading to their depletion and potential long-term unavailability.

Finite Resources: All natural resources are limited in availability. Even renewable resources are finite if their regeneration rates are not respected.
Renewable Resources: Resources that can regenerate or be replenished naturally at a rate equal to or faster than their rate of consumption. Examples include food crops, timber, freshwater, and ozone.
Non-Renewable Resources: Resources that exist in finite quantities and do not regenerate on a human timescale, such as fossil fuels and minerals.
Sustainability: The use of resources in a way that ensures they remain available for future generations by not exceeding their regeneration rates.

Renewable Resources

Characteristics: Renewable resources are those that can be naturally replenished at a rate that allows for continuous use without leading to depletion. These include resources such as:
Food Crops: Plants that can be grown and harvested regularly through agricultural practices.
Timber: Wood from forests that can be sustainably harvested and regrown.
Freshwater: Water that is naturally replenished through the hydrological cycle, including rivers, lakes, and aquifers.
Ozone: A layer in the Earth’s atmosphere that can regenerate through chemical reactions involving sunlight.

Renewable resources are sustainable only if their use does not exceed their natural regeneration rate. For example, forests can be sustainably managed by ensuring that the rate of tree planting and growth matches or exceeds the rate of logging.

Non-Renewable Resources

Characteristics: Non-renewable resources are those that do not regenerate on a human timescale. Once used, they cannot be replenished. Examples include:
Fossil Fuels: Coal, oil, and natural gas that formed over millions of years from the remains of ancient plants and animals.
Minerals: Metals and other geological resources that are extracted from the Earth’s crust and are not naturally replenished.
Depletion: The use of non-renewable resources leads to their eventual depletion, which can have significant economic and environmental impacts.

The Transition from Renewable to Non-Renewable

Overuse and Depletion: When renewable resources are used beyond their regeneration rate, they can become effectively non-renewable. For example, if a forest is logged faster than it can regrow, it may not recover, leading to deforestation and loss of biodiversity.
Unsustainability: The unsustainable use of renewable resources can lead to long-term environmental degradation, economic challenges, and the loss of critical ecosystem services.

Resource depletion is an economic term referring to the exhaustion of raw materials within a region. Use of resources beyond their rate of replacement is considered to be resource depletion.

Renewable Natural Capital

African forests are significantly shrinking. Trees and vegetation cover are being cut down for various uses. Most of the people use firewood as the energy source. Also, most of people’s livelihood depends on forests as well as land, leading to the increased deforestation. Generally it is one the environmental challenges in Malawi and developing countries at large. For example in Malawi about 10,000 ha.forests were being deforested annually between 1981 to 1985. This number continues through today.

Non-renewable Natural Capital

At present, the most important energy sources used by the Indian population are non-renewable sources of energy. Indian economy is largely based on fossil fuels, minerals and oil. The value increases because of the large demand, but the supply is decreasing. This has resulted in more efforts to drill and search other territories. The environment is being abused and this depletion of resources is one way of showing the effects. The consumption of petroleum has multiplied itself almost thirty times in the post-independence era

7.1.7 Natural capital has aesthetic, cultural, economic, environmental, health, intrinsic, social, spiritual and technological value. The value of natural capital is influenced by these factors.

Discuss how natural capital provides goods and services.
Explain how the value of natural capital is dependent on many factors including aesthetic, cultural, economic, environmental, ethical, intrinsic, social, spiritual and technological.

image from https://visual.ly/community/infographic/transportation/materials-used-make-car-0

Natural capital is not just a stock of resources for economic exploitation; it holds a wide array of values that influence how it is perceived, utilized, and conserved. These values encompass aesthetic, cultural, economic, environmental, health, intrinsic, social, spiritual, and technological aspects. Understanding these diverse values is essential for appreciating the full significance of natural capital and making informed decisions about its management and conservation.

Organisms or ecosystems have value:

Intrinsic values: values that are not determined by their potential use to human, their value is given vary by culture, religion, etc. E.g. a statue
Economic value-: value that are determined from the market price of the good and services a resources produce.
Ecological Value: value that have no formed market price but are essential to human e.g. photosynthesis
Aseptic Value: no market price, similar to ecological value,(basically things that look good). E.g. landscape

Organisms or ecosystems valued for aesthetic or intrinsic reasons may be unpriced or undervalued economically, as they don't provide easily identifiable goods or services. Intrinsic value, rooted in ethical, spiritual, or philosophical perspectives, values nature regardless of human use. This creates diverse views on evaluating natural capital. Efforts are being made to integrate these varied valuations, such as biodiversity and resource depletion, into economic metrics like GNP. However, some argue these values are difficult to quantify. The sustainability debate often focuses on how to balance these conflicting values in managing natural capital

Types of Value Associated with Natural Capital

Aesthetic Value:
- Description: The beauty and visual appeal of natural landscapes, such as mountains, forests, and oceans, provide inspiration, recreation, and a sense of well-being.
- Example: The Grand Canyon in the United States is valued not only for its geological significance but also for its breathtaking scenery, which attracts millions of visitors each year.
Cultural Value:
- Description: Natural capital is integral to the cultural identities and traditions of many communities, influencing art, folklore, and cultural practices.
- Example: The sacred groves of India are revered in local cultures for their spiritual significance and are often protected by traditional customs.
Economic Value:
- Description: Natural capital provides resources that can be converted into economic goods and services, contributing to livelihoods, industries, and national economies.
- Example: Fisheries provide fish for commercial and subsistence purposes, supporting jobs and contributing to food security.
Environmental Value:
- Description: Natural capital supports essential ecological processes and functions that sustain life, such as nutrient cycling, water purification, and biodiversity.
- Example: Wetlands filter pollutants from water, maintain water quality, and provide habitat for diverse species.
Health Value:
- Description: Ecosystems contribute to human health by providing clean air, water, medicinal resources, and opportunities for physical activity and mental relaxation.
- Example: Forests produce oxygen, help regulate air quality, and offer spaces for recreation, which benefits both physical and mental health.
Intrinsic Value:
- Description: The inherent worth of natural capital, independent of its utility to humans, acknowledging the right of all living things to exist and thrive.
- Example: Endangered species like the giant panda are protected not just for their ecological role but also for their intrinsic value, irrespective of their economic benefit.
Social Value:
- Description: Natural capital fosters social cohesion and community well-being through shared experiences and collective stewardship of the environment.
- Example: Community gardens and urban parks provide spaces for social interaction, strengthening community bonds.
Spiritual Value:
- Description: Many cultures and religions view natural environments as sacred and central to their spiritual beliefs and practices.
- Example: The Ganges River in India is considered holy by Hindus, playing a key role in religious rituals and spiritual life.
Technological Value:
- Description: Natural capital provides inspiration and raw materials for technological innovations and advancements, often leading to new products or solutions to environmental challenges.
- Example: Biomimicry, the design of materials and systems modeled on biological processes, often draws inspiration from natural ecosystems to solve human problems.

Application of skills: Create a survey to investigate the value that members of the school community place on different ecosystem services.

7.1.8 The value of natural capital is dynamic in that it can change over time.

Explain how natural capital is dynamic in nature and how its value and status changes over time and space according to cultural, social, economic, environmental, technological and political factors.

image from www.energy4me.org

The value of resources changes over time and with various other factors. During the Stone Age, fossil fuels were worthless because the internal-combustion engine had not yet been invented, but arrowheads were very valuable because they allowed people to hunt and therefore eat. In modern times, we need fossil fuels to maintain many of the processes in society (communication, transportation, electricity production), so that fossil fuels have a high economic value now, but because we've developed many different ways to get enough food to eat, the arrowheads are no longer economically valuable.

Resources may have different dollar values assigned to them depending on the value that is being measured. Some values are pretty straightforward to measure (i.e. the market value of a mineral traded on global exchanges) while others are more difficult to calculate (How much is a 'beautiful view' worth?).

Lithium batteries are a relatively recent development and are used widely in micro-electronics. Mobile phones, for example, contain lithium batteries. It is especially important for the production of e-car batteries. This has meant that the value of lithium as a resource has increased dramatically.

https://www.statista.com/chart/28037/lithium-carbonate-price-timeline/

managing natural capital

7.1.9 The use of natural capital needs to be managed in order to ensure sustainability.

List three strategies for managing natural capital sustainably
Outline the consequences of unsustainable use of natural capital

Sustainability is a key objective in managing natural resources. To achieve sustainability, we must ensure that resources are not used more rapidly than they can regenerate, and that waste is not emitted faster than it can be absorbed or transformed by the environment. One effective way to understand sustainable resource use is by examining the natural income generated from certain types of natural capital.

Example: Overfishing in the North Sea

The North Sea has historically been a rich fishing ground, providing large quantities of cod and other fish species. These fish stocks represent a significant natural income for the fishing industry.

Overfishing in the North Sea has led to a severe decline in cod populations, threatening the sustainability of the fishery. If fishing continues at unsustainable levels, the cod population may collapse, turning a renewable resource into a non-renewable one.

Management Strategy:

Renewable resources are a form of natural capital that can regenerate over time.
Sustainable use of these resources requires harvesting at a rate that allows natural replenishment, known as Maximum Sustainable Yield (MSY).
In fishing, it's crucial to balance the harvest (natural income) with the need to maintain fish populations for reproduction.
Overfishing can deplete fish stocks, turning a renewable resource into a non-renewable one.
MSY is the maximum amount of fish that can be caught while ensuring the population remains sustainable.
To combat overfishing, quotas and Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) have been established to regulate catches and allow fish populations to recover.
These measures help ensure that fishing remains sustainable over the long term.

Example: The Galápagos Islands and Tourism

The Galápagos Islands are a unique ecosystem with numerous endemic species.
Tourism is a significant source of natural income, supporting local economies.
Uncontrolled tourism can cause habitat destruction, pollution, and introduce invasive species, threatening the islands' biodiversity.
The Ecuadorian government and local stakeholders have implemented strict regulations to protect the islands.
Measures include visitor limits, zoning of protected areas, and sustainable tourism practices.
These regulations help balance the economic benefits of tourism with the preservation of the islands' natural capital.

image from https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2017/08/the-growth-paradox-can-tourism-ever-be-sustainable/

Sustainable Forestry in the Boreal Forests of Canada

The boreal forests of Canada are one of the largest intact forest ecosystems in the world, spanning across vast areas of the country. These forests are rich in biodiversity and play a crucial role in carbon sequestration, climate regulation, and providing habitat for numerous species. The forestry industry in Canada relies heavily on the boreal forests for timber, which is used for construction, paper production, and other products.

Sustainability Challenge:

If timber harvesting in the boreal forests is conducted at an unsustainable rate—where trees are cut down faster than they can regrow—the forest's natural capital would be severely compromised. Overharvesting could lead to deforestation, loss of biodiversity, disruption of water cycles, and increased carbon emissions. Additionally, the traditional ways of life of Indigenous communities who rely on these forests could be threatened.

Management Strategy:

To ensure sustainable use of the boreal forests, Canada has implemented several key strategies:

Sustainable Forest Management Practices:

Selective Logging: Instead of clear-cutting large areas, selective logging is practiced, where only certain trees are harvested, leaving the rest of the forest intact to continue growing and regenerating. This approach helps preserve the forest structure, maintain biodiversity, and reduce environmental impact.

Reforestation:

Replanting Trees: After logging operations, new trees are planted to replace those that were cut down. Reforestation efforts ensure that the forest can regenerate over time, maintaining its role as a source of timber and other ecosystem services.

Certification Programs:

Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) Certification: Many Canadian forestry companies adhere to the standards set by the FSC, which promote responsible forest management. FSC certification ensures that the timber is sourced from forests managed in a way that preserves their ecological integrity and benefits local communities.

Indigenous Collaboration:

Partnerships with Indigenous Peoples: Indigenous communities in Canada have deep connections to the boreal forests, and their traditional knowledge is invaluable for sustainable forest management. Collaborative efforts between the government, forestry companies, and Indigenous peoples help ensure that forest management practices respect cultural values and support sustainable livelihoods.

resource security

7.1.10 Resource security depends on the ability of societies to ensure the long-term availability of sufficient natural resources to meet demand.

List three factors that influence a society's ability to ensure resource security
Outline the potential consequences of failing to achieve resource security for a society's economy and environment
Describe how overconsumption of a specific natural resource can lead to resource insecurity

Resource security is a critical aspect of sustainable development, involving the ability of societies to ensure the long-term availability of natural resources necessary to meet current and future demand. Achieving resource security is essential for maintaining stability, economic development, and social well-being.

Factors Influencing Resource Security

Geographical Factors: The natural availability of resources, such as fertile land or freshwater, plays a significant role in determining a society’s resource security.
Economic Factors: Wealthier societies often have more resources to invest in infrastructure, technology, and imports, which can enhance resource security.
Political Stability: Stable governments are better able to manage resources, implement policies, and ensure equitable distribution, contributing to resource security.
Technological Advances: Innovation in agriculture, water management, and resource conservation can improve resource security by increasing efficiency and reducing waste.

Resource Security primarily involves food, water, and energy resources. A country's resource security depends on the supply and demand of natural resources.

Food Security

Food security refers to the availability, accessibility, and affordability of food for all people at all times. It encompasses the ability of a population to consistently have enough nutritious food to lead a healthy and active life.

Challenges to Food Security:

Climate Change: Changes in weather patterns, such as droughts and floods, can affect agricultural productivity, leading to food shortages.
Economic Inequality: Disparities in income and wealth can limit access to food for certain populations, even when food is available.
Conflict and Political Instability: Wars, civil unrest, and political instability can disrupt food production and distribution, leading to food insecurity.
Population Growth: Increasing populations place greater demand on food supplies, requiring innovations in agriculture and food distribution to maintain security.

Food Security in Sub-Saharan Africa (Ethiopia)

Ethiopia, a country in Sub-Saharan Africa, faces significant challenges in achieving food security due to factors such as climate variability, political instability, and economic constraints.
Challenges:
- Climate Change: Ethiopia is highly vulnerable to climate change, with frequent droughts and unpredictable rainfall patterns that severely impact agricultural productivity.
- Economic and Infrastructure Constraints: Limited access to modern agricultural technologies, poor infrastructure, and economic instability hinder the country’s ability to produce and distribute sufficient food.
- Political Instability: Ongoing conflict and political instability have disrupted food production and distribution, exacerbating food insecurity.
Strategies:
- Agricultural Development Programs: The Ethiopian government, with support from international organizations, has implemented programs to improve agricultural productivity, including the introduction of drought-resistant crops and improved farming practices.
- Food Aid and Assistance: During times of severe food shortages, Ethiopia relies on international food aid to meet the needs of its population.
- Water Management Initiatives: Efforts to improve water management, such as building small-scale irrigation systems, aim to enhance agricultural resilience to climate change.
Outcome: Despite these efforts, Ethiopia continues to struggle with food security. The country remains vulnerable to food shortages, and many of its population experience chronic hunger and malnutrition. Achieving long-term food security remains a significant challenge.

Water Security

Water security refers to the capacity of a population to ensure sustainable access to sufficient quantities of clean water for drinking, sanitation, agriculture, industry, and ecosystem health.

Challenges to Water Security:

Climate Change: Changes in precipitation patterns, glacier melt, and extreme weather events can affect water availability and distribution.
Overuse and Depletion: Excessive extraction of groundwater, surface water, and other freshwater resources can lead to depletion, making it difficult to meet long-term water demands.
Pollution: Industrial, agricultural, and domestic pollution can degrade water quality, making it unsafe for human consumption and damaging ecosystems.
Population Growth: Increasing populations and urbanization increase the demand for water, putting additional pressure on water resources.

Water Security in Israel

Israel is a country in a region with limited freshwater resources. Despite this, Israel has achieved a high level of water security through innovative water management strategies.
Strategies:
- Desalination: Israel has invested heavily in desalination technology, turning seawater into potable water. Desalination plants provide a significant portion of the country’s water supply.
- Water Recycling: Israel is a world leader in water recycling, treating wastewater to be reused for agriculture and other purposes. Approximately 85% of Israel's wastewater is recycled, significantly reducing the strain on freshwater resources.
- Efficient Irrigation: The country has developed advanced irrigation techniques, such as drip irrigation, which minimize water use while maximizing agricultural output.
Outcome: Israel has achieved a high level of water security, ensuring a stable and reliable water supply for its population and agricultural sector. This has been crucial for the country’s development and stability, despite its challenging environmental conditions

Activity: Consider the extent to which resource security in two contrasting named societies has been achieved for food or water

7.1.11 The choices a society makes in using given natural resources are affected by many factors and reflect diverse perspectives.

Define resource security
List three factors that influence a society's decision-making process when using natural resources.
Describe how political factors have influenced the development of nuclear energy in a specific country
Explain how resource security relates to the choices societies make regarding natural resource use.

The decisions that societies make regarding the use of natural resources are influenced by a complex interplay of factors, including economic, sociocultural, political, environmental, geographical, technological, and historical considerations. These factors shape how resources are managed, utilized, and prioritized, reflecting the diverse perspectives within a society. Additionally, global initiatives, such as international agreements to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and achieve net-zero emissions, can significantly alter these priorities. Understanding these influences is crucial for making informed and sustainable choices about resource use.

Factors Influencing Resource Choices

Economic Factors: The economic value of a resource, its contribution to employment, trade, and economic growth, and the costs associated with its extraction, production, and distribution are key considerations.
Sociocultural Factors: Cultural values, traditions, and social norms can shape how resources are perceived and utilized. For example, some communities may prioritize the conservation of certain resources due to their cultural significance.
Political Factors: Government policies, regulations, and political stability influence resource management. Political agendas and international relations also play a role, particularly in resource-rich regions.
Environmental Factors: The environmental impact of resource extraction and use, including concerns about sustainability, biodiversity, and climate change, can drive societal choices.
Geographical Factors: The physical location and availability of resources, as well as the geographical characteristics of a region, determine what resources are accessible and how they can be used.
Technological Factors: Advances in technology can change how resources are extracted, processed, and utilized, making some resources more viable or reducing the environmental impact of their use.
Historical Factors: Historical patterns of resource use, including past conflicts over resources and long-standing practices, can influence current decisions and policies.

Examples

Economic Factors:

Example: The Use of Natural Gas in the United States
Background: Natural gas has become a major energy source in the United States, largely due to its economic advantages.
Economic Drivers: The discovery of large shale gas reserves and advancements in hydraulic fracturing (fracking) technology have made natural gas more economically viable than coal or oil. Natural gas is also cheaper and burns cleaner than coal, which has driven its adoption for electricity generation.
Impact: The economic benefits of natural gas, including lower energy costs and job creation in the energy sector, have led to its widespread use. However, the economic focus on cheap energy has also sparked debate over the environmental impacts of fracking.

Sociocultural Factors

Example: The Conservation of Sacred Groves in India
Background: In various regions of India, certain forests are considered sacred by local communities and are conserved as part of their cultural and religious practices.
Sociocultural Drivers: These sacred groves are often protected by traditional beliefs that prohibit the cutting of trees or the hunting of animals within these areas. The cultural and spiritual significance attached to these groves ensures their preservation.
Impact: Despite pressures from urbanization and agriculture, the cultural importance of these groves has led to their continued protection, illustrating how sociocultural factors can influence natural resource conservation.

Political Factors

Example: The Development of Nuclear Energy in France
Background: France has one of the most developed nuclear energy programs in the world, with about 70% of its electricity generated from nuclear power.
Political Drivers: The French government has strongly supported nuclear energy as a way to achieve energy independence, reduce reliance on fossil fuel imports, and meet environmental goals. This political commitment began after the oil crises of the 1970s, leading to significant investments in nuclear infrastructure.
Impact: Government policies have enabled France to become a leader in low-carbon energy production, but political support has also faced challenges, especially in light of concerns about nuclear safety and waste disposal.

Environmental Factors

Example:The Transition to Renewable Energy in Germany (Energiewende)
Background: Germany has embarked on an ambitious energy transition, known as the Energiewende, to shift from fossil fuels and nuclear energy to renewable energy sources like wind and solar power.
Environmental Drivers: The need to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, combat climate change, and minimize environmental degradation has been a primary motivation for this transition. Public concern over nuclear safety, particularly after the Fukushima disaster, also accelerated the shift away from nuclear energy.
Impact: Environmental considerations have led to significant investments in renewable energy infrastructure. While the transition has reduced emissions, it has also posed challenges, such as the need for grid modernization and the economic impact on coal-dependent regions.

Geographical Factors

Example: The Use of Hydropower in Norway
Background: Norway is one of the world’s largest producers of hydropower, which accounts for over 90% of the country’s electricity production.
Geographical Drivers: Norway’s mountainous terrain, abundant rivers, and high levels of precipitation provide ideal conditions for hydropower generation. The natural geography of the country has made hydropower a logical and sustainable choice for energy production.
Impact: Norway’s reliance on hydropower has contributed to its low-carbon energy profile and energy security. The geographical advantages have allowed Norway to export surplus electricity to neighboring countries, further benefiting its economy.

Technological Factors

Example: The Adoption of Solar Energy in China
Background: China has become the world’s largest producer and installer of solar panels, driven by rapid advancements in solar technology.
Technological Drivers: Significant investments in research and development, coupled with government incentives, have made solar technology more efficient and cost-effective. The development of large-scale solar farms and the reduction in production costs have accelerated the adoption of solar energy in China.
Impact: Technological advancements have enabled China to rapidly expand its solar capacity, reducing reliance on coal and lowering greenhouse gas emissions. China’s leadership in solar technology has also positioned it as a key player in the global renewable energy market.

Historical Factors

Example: The Legacy of Coal Mining in the United Kingdom
Background: Coal mining played a central role in the United Kingdom’s Industrial Revolution and was a major source of energy for over a century.
Historical Drivers: The discovery of extensive coal deposits and the industrial demand for energy during the 19th and early 20th centuries entrenched coal as the primary energy source in the UK. The development of infrastructure and communities around coal mines also reinforced its importance.
Impact: While coal mining has dramatically declined due to environmental concerns and the shift to cleaner energy sources, the historical reliance on coal has left a legacy of economic and social challenges in former mining regions. The transition away from coal has required significant efforts to retrain workers and revitalize these areas.

Case Study: Impact of International Agreements on Coal Use in India

Paris Agreement: India is a signatory to the Paris Agreement, which aims to limit global warming by reducing GHG emissions. This international commitment has influenced India’s energy policy, leading to increased investment in renewable energy and a gradual shift away from coal.
Net-Zero Emissions Goals: India has set a target to achieve net-zero carbon emissions by 2070. This goal is driving changes in resource priorities, with a focus on expanding renewable energy capacity, reducing coal dependence, and adopting cleaner technologies.
Shifting Priorities: The pressure to meet international climate commitments is leading to a re-evaluation of coal’s role in India’s energy mix, with growing emphasis on sustainable energy sources.

Activity: Consider factors affecting the local choice of a named natural resource.

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7.1.12 A range of different management and intervention strategies can be used to directly influence society’s use of natural capital.

List three types of government intervention strategies that can be used to reduce the use of unsustainable natural capital
Outline how national action plans aimed at achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) can contribute to the sustainable management of natural capital.
Evaluate the impact of international agreements, such as the Paris Agreement, on a country’s strategies to manage its natural capital.

We can employ various management strategies to directly impact how society utilizes natural capital. Government-led initiatives include implementing national action plans aimed at achieving the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).

Specifically, SDG 12 focuses on ensuring sustainable consumption and production patterns, with Target 12.2 addressing the sustainable management and efficient use of natural resources.

Government Management Strategies

Governments play a central role in managing natural capital through the development and implementation of national policies and action plans. One example of such management is the creation of National Action Plans (NAPs) aimed at achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). These plans outline specific strategies and targets for managing natural resources sustainably, balancing economic growth with environmental conservation. Governments may focus on sectors like agriculture, energy, and water resources, ensuring that their use aligns with broader sustainability objectives.

Example: Germany’s National Action Plan for Sustainable Development

Context: Germany has developed a comprehensive National Action Plan to achieve the SDGs, with a strong focus on sustainable resource use.
Action: The plan includes measures to increase energy efficiency, reduce waste, and promote sustainable agriculture. Germany’s commitment to SDG 12 is reflected in its efforts to transition to a circular economy, where resources are reused and recycled, minimizing waste.
Impact: Through these strategies, Germany aims to decouple economic growth from resource use, ensuring that natural capital is managed sustainably to meet both current and future needs.

Government Intervention Strategies

Governments can also intervene directly to regulate or alter the use of natural capital. This intervention can take various forms:

Regulatory Measures:
- Taxes and Fines: Governments may impose taxes on activities that degrade natural capital, such as a carbon tax on fossil fuel use, to discourage unsustainable practices. Fines may also be levied on companies or individuals who violate environmental laws, such as illegal logging or pollution.
- Legislation: Enacting laws to limit or ban certain practices can be effective in protecting natural capital. For example, legislation that restricts carbon emissions or bans single-use plastics can significantly reduce environmental impact.
Pricing Strategies:
- Price Adjustments: Governments may influence the use of natural capital by adjusting the price of goods and services. For example, increasing the price of fossil fuels through taxes or removing subsidies makes renewable energy sources more competitive, encouraging a shift away from non-renewable resources.
Incentive-Based Strategies:
- Subsidies: To promote the use of sustainable natural capital, governments can offer subsidies for activities such as renewable energy production, sustainable agriculture, or the development of green technologies. These subsidies lower the cost of environmentally friendly practices, making them more attractive to businesses and consumers.
- Publicity Campaigns and Education: Raising public awareness about the benefits of sustainable resource use through campaigns and educational programs can shift societal behavior. For instance, promoting the benefits of recycling, energy efficiency, or water conservation can lead to widespread changes in how natural resources are used.
- Research and Development: Governments can fund research into new technologies that make more efficient or sustainable use of natural capital. Examples include supporting the development of carbon-capturing concrete, recyclable wind turbines, or biologically produced ammonia as an alternative to the Haber process.

Examples
Regulatory Measures

The United Kingdom’s Carbon Tax
- Context: The UK introduced a carbon tax as part of its efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and combat climate change.
- Action: The tax applies to carbon dioxide emissions from electricity generation and incentivizes energy producers to switch from fossil fuels to cleaner energy sources like wind and solar.
- Impact: The carbon tax has contributed to a significant reduction in coal use and a corresponding increase in renewable energy generation, helping the UK meet its climate targets.

Pricing Strategies

Fuel Price Adjustments in India
- Context: India has gradually removed subsidies on fossil fuels, leading to higher prices for petrol and diesel.
- Action: By raising the cost of fossil fuels, the government encourages the adoption of alternative energy sources, such as electric vehicles and solar power, which are more environmentally friendly.
- Impact: The removal of subsidies has helped reduce fossil fuel consumption and supported India’s efforts to improve air quality and reduce its carbon footprint.

Incentive-Based Strategies

Solar Power Subsidies in California, USA
- Context: California offers substantial subsidies and tax incentives for the installation of solar panels, making renewable energy more affordable for homeowners and businesses.
- Action: These financial incentives have made solar power an attractive option, leading to widespread adoption across the state.
- Impact: The increase in solar installations has significantly boosted California’s renewable energy capacity, contributing to the state’s ambitious climate goals and reducing reliance on fossil fuels.

NGOs, Local Communities, and Social Movements

Beyond government action, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), local communities, and social movements also play a vital role in influencing the use of natural capital:

NGOs:
- NGOs often lead campaigns to protect natural capital, advocating for policies that conserve resources or restore degraded environments. They may also work directly with communities to implement sustainable practices, such as reforestation projects or sustainable farming initiatives.
Local Communities:
- Communities can influence resource use through grassroots initiatives, such as community-led conservation efforts, local recycling programs, or sustainable tourism projects. These initiatives often reflect the unique needs and values of the community, ensuring that natural capital is used in a way that benefits local populations.
Social Movements:
- Social movements, often amplified by social media, can bring attention to issues related to natural capital and mobilize public support for change. Movements advocating for climate action, biodiversity conservation, or the reduction of plastic waste have led to significant shifts in public policy and consumer behavior.

Examples
NGOs

The World Wildlife Fund (WWF) and Forest Conservation
- Context: The WWF has been actively involved in conserving forests around the world, particularly in regions facing deforestation.
- Action: Through campaigns, partnerships, and on-the-ground conservation projects, the WWF works with governments and local communities to protect and restore forests.
- Impact: These efforts have led to the preservation of critical habitats, reduced carbon emissions from deforestation, and promoted sustainable forestry practices.

Local Communities

Community-Led Water Conservation in Rajasthan, India
- Context: In the arid region of Rajasthan, local communities have revived traditional water harvesting techniques to address water scarcity.
- Action: Communities have built and maintained small reservoirs, known as johads, to capture and store rainwater, ensuring a reliable water supply throughout the year.
- Impact: These efforts have improved water security, supported agriculture, and revitalized local ecosystems, demonstrating the power of community-driven resource management.

Social Movements

The Plastic-Free Movement
- Context: The global Plastic-Free Movement, driven by social media campaigns, aims to reduce plastic waste by encouraging individuals and businesses to eliminate single-use plastics.
- Action: The movement has promoted alternatives to plastic, such as reusable bags, bottles, and containers, and has influenced legislation banning or restricting plastic use in several countries.
- Impact: The movement has raised awareness about plastic pollution, leading to significant reductions in plastic waste in many areas and inspiring new policies that support sustainable materials.

Activity: What role can environmental economics play in the reduction of resource use?

7.1.13 The SDGs provide a framework for action by all countries in global partnership for natural
resources use and management.

List three SDGs that are directly related to natural resource management
Outline the role of global partnerships in achieving the SDGs related to natural resource management
Describe how the implementation of SDG 15 (Life on Land) can contribute to the sustainable management of forests.

Click on the image to access the SDG Framework

The United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) offer a comprehensive framework for global action, guiding countries toward sustainable resource management through collaborative efforts. These goals encourage nations to work together, sharing knowledge, resources, and strategies to ensure the responsible use and conservation of natural resources. The SDGs emphasize the importance of partnerships across countries, sectors, and communities, recognizing that sustainable resource management is a global challenge requiring coordinated action. Here, we consider two examples that illustrate how the SDGs have facilitated global partnerships in sustainable resource management.

Example 1: SDG 6 – Clean Water and Sanitation: Transboundary Water Management in the Nile Basin:

https://borgenproject.org/solutions-to-the-nile-river-conflicts/

The Nile River, stretching over 6,600 kilometers and flowing through eleven countries in northeastern Africa, is a critical lifeline for millions of people. However, the region faces significant challenges related to water stress, including issues of water scarcity, health and hygiene, and food production. These challenges are exacerbated by periodic droughts, population growth, and the impacts of climate change. Effective management of the Nile’s water resources is essential to ensuring the sustainable use of this vital natural capital

.SDG Framework and Partnership:

SDG 6 focuses on ensuring the availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all. Within this goal, Target 6.5 emphasizes the need for integrated water resources management, particularly in transboundary contexts where water bodies like the Nile River are shared by multiple nations.

Water Stress and Scarcity: The Nile Basin is experiencing increasing water stress due to a combination of factors, including climate change, which has led to more frequent and severe droughts, and rapid population growth, which increases demand for water. In some areas, individuals are forced to transport water over long distances, often from unreliable sources, leading to significant time and energy expenditure, especially for women and children.
Health and Hygiene Issues: Access to clean water and adequate sanitation is limited in many parts of the Nile Basin, contributing to poor health and hygiene outcomes. Waterborne diseases such as cholera and dysentery are prevalent, particularly in areas with inadequate sanitation infrastructure. The lack of clean water exacerbates these health challenges, making effective resource management critical to improving public health.
Food Production Challenges: Agriculture is the primary livelihood for many communities along the Nile, but water scarcity and variability pose significant challenges to food production. Irrigated agriculture, which depends heavily on the Nile’s water, is threatened by both overuse of water resources and the unpredictability of rainfall patterns. In areas suffering from drought, crop failures and food insecurity are common, highlighting the need for coordinated water management strategies.

Collaborative Action and Resource Management:

The Nile Basin Initiative (NBI), established by the countries of the Nile Basin, is a partnership aimed at promoting cooperative management of the river’s resources. The NBI aligns with SDG 6 by focusing on the equitable and sustainable use of the Nile’s water resources to address these pressing challenges.

Integrated Water Resources Management: The NBI has implemented integrated water resources management (IWRM) strategies to optimize the use of the Nile’s water. These strategies include developing water-sharing agreements, improving water use efficiency in agriculture, and investing in infrastructure to reduce water loss. By coordinating water use across multiple countries, the NBI helps mitigate the effects of water stress and ensures that water is available for essential needs like drinking, hygiene, and food production.
Drought Management and Adaptation: The NBI supports member countries in developing drought management plans that include early warning systems, water conservation practices, and alternative water sources. These efforts help communities adapt to changing water availability and reduce the impact of drought on food security and public health.
Health and Hygiene Improvements: The NBI collaborates with governments and NGOs to improve access to clean water and sanitation facilities. Projects funded through the initiative have focused on building wells, latrines, and community water points, reducing the incidence of waterborne diseases and improving overall health outcomes.

Outcomes and Challenges:
The Nile Basin Initiative has made significant strides in addressing water stress and improving resource management in the region. By fostering cooperation among the basin’s countries, the NBI has helped to reduce conflicts over water use, improve water distribution for agriculture, and enhance access to clean water and sanitation. However, challenges remain, particularly in balancing the needs of upstream and downstream countries, managing the impacts of climate change, and ensuring that resource management efforts reach the most vulnerable populations.

Example 2: SDG 15 – Life on Land: Sustainable Land Management in the Sahel Region

https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2023/03/sustainable-farming-innovations-sahel/

The Sahel region, stretching across Africa from Senegal to Sudan, is a semi-arid belt characterized by fragile ecosystems that are highly vulnerable to desertification and land degradation. The region is home to millions of people who rely on the land for agriculture, livestock, and natural resources. However, unsustainable land use practices, climate change, and population pressure have led to severe land degradation, threatening food security, biodiversity, and livelihoods.

SDG Framework and Partnership:
SDG 15 aims to protect, restore, and promote the sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, combat desertification, halt and reverse land degradation, and halt biodiversity loss. The Great Green Wall initiative, an ambitious project spearheaded by African nations, aligns with SDG 15 by focusing on restoring degraded lands and promoting sustainable land management across the Sahel.

Land Degradation and Desertification: The Sahel is one of the most vulnerable regions to desertification, where fertile land is turning into desert due to overgrazing, deforestation, and unsustainable farming practices. This degradation reduces the land’s productivity, exacerbating food insecurity and poverty in the region.
Biodiversity Loss: As land degrades, biodiversity declines. The Sahel’s ecosystems, which once supported diverse plant and animal species, are becoming increasingly barren, leading to the loss of native species and the disruption of ecological functions.

Collaborative Action and Resource Management:

The Great Green Wall initiative, launched by the African Union in 2007, is a prime example of how international partnerships can promote sustainable land management in the Sahel. The initiative aims to create a mosaic of green and productive landscapes across the width of Africa by restoring 100 million hectares of degraded land by 2030.

Restoration and Reforestation: The Great Green Wall involves large-scale reforestation and afforestation efforts, planting trees and shrubs that are adapted to the arid conditions of the Sahel. These trees help to anchor the soil, reduce erosion, and improve water retention, thereby reversing desertification and restoring the land’s productivity.
Sustainable Agriculture and Livelihoods: The initiative also promotes sustainable agricultural practices, such as agroforestry, crop rotation, and water conservation techniques. These practices help to improve soil fertility, increase crop yields, and provide sustainable livelihoods for local communities. By integrating trees and crops, farmers can benefit from both food production and the additional resources that trees provide, such as fruit, firewood, and fodder for livestock.
Biodiversity Conservation: Restoring the land also supports biodiversity conservation. The reforestation efforts create habitats for native species, helping to restore the region’s ecological balance and protect endangered species. The initiative also promotes the use of native and drought-resistant plant species to ensure that the restored landscapes are resilient to climate change.

Outcomes and Challenges:

The Great Green Wall has made significant progress in restoring degraded lands and improving the livelihoods of communities across the Sahel. Countries like Senegal, Ethiopia, and Niger have successfully restored large areas of land, leading to increased agricultural productivity, improved food security, and enhanced biodiversity. However, the initiative faces challenges such as securing sufficient funding, coordinating efforts across multiple countries, and ensuring the long-term sustainability of restored landscapes.

environmental impact assessment

7.1.14 Sustainable resource management in development projects is addressed in an environmental impact assessment (EIA).

Define baseline
Use an example to explain the purpose of an EIA.
Use a named example of a countries EIA
Explain the stages that are involved in an EIA.

Sustainable resource management is a critical component of development projects, ensuring that the use of natural resources does not lead to long-term environmental degradation, social inequities, or economic instability. One of the key tools for achieving sustainable resource management in development projects is the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA). An EIA is a comprehensive process that evaluates the potential environmental, social, and economic impacts of a proposed development project. By conducting independent, detailed surveys, and following up with audits and continued monitoring, an EIA helps to ensure that projects are designed and implemented in a way that promotes sustainability and minimizes negative impacts.

EIA involves production of a baseline study before any environmental development, assessment of possible impacts, and monitoring of change during and after the development.

What developments used in the EIA:

Major new road networks
Airport/port developments
Building power stations
Building dams and reservoirs
Quarrying
Large scale housing projects

What is an EIA?

An Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a systematic process used to evaluate the potential effects of a proposed project on the environment, society, and economy. It is a critical step in the planning and approval process for development projects, particularly those that involve significant alterations to the landscape, resource extraction, or infrastructure development.

https://www.canada.ca/en/impact-assessment-agency/services/policy-guidance/impact-assessment-process-overview.html

Key Components of an EIA:

Scoping:
- Scoping identifies the key environmental, social, and economic issues to focus on, defining the boundaries of the EIA. It prioritizes significant impacts that need detailed study, ensuring all relevant factors are considered.
Baseline Study:
- A baseline study collects data on the current environmental conditions, such as air and water quality, biodiversity, and socio-economic status. This serves as a reference point for measuring the project's potential impacts.
Predicting and Evaluating Impacts:
- This stage involves forecasting and assessing the potential environmental, social, and economic impacts of the project. It considers the severity, duration, and likelihood of these impacts to determine which require the most attention.
Mitigation:
- Mitigation strategies are developed to avoid, reduce, or manage the predicted negative impacts. These measures might include changes to the project design or the implementation of specific environmental protections.
The Environmental Statement:
- The environmental statement is a summary of the EIA’s findings, including scoping results, baseline data, predicted impacts, and proposed mitigation measures. It is used by regulatory authorities and serves as the basis for public consultation and project monitoring.

Importance of EIAs in Sustainable Resource Management

Promoting Sustainability:
- EIAs play a vital role in promoting sustainability by ensuring that development projects are planned and executed with a clear understanding of their potential environmental, social, and economic impacts. By integrating sustainability considerations into the early stages of project planning, EIAs help to prevent irreversible damage to natural resources and ecosystems.
Balancing Development and Conservation:
- The EIA process provides a framework for balancing the need for economic development with the imperative to conserve natural resources. By identifying potential conflicts and proposing mitigation strategies, EIAs help to align development goals with environmental and social priorities.
Enhancing Decision-Making:
- EIAs provide decision-makers with detailed, evidence-based information about the potential impacts of a project. This information is crucial for making informed decisions that consider both short-term benefits and long-term sustainability. EIAs also enhance transparency and accountability in the decision-making process, as they require the involvement of independent experts and public stakeholders.

Limitations of Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs)

EIA has suffered much criticism over the years including criticism about: poor public consultation practices; poorly written reports; costly, inefficient and time consuming practices; limited scope; information understated or omitted from reports; EIA treated as a separate process and not integrated into the project cycle; lack of monitoring and review of terms set out in reports; and inconsistent application. The result is a lack of confidence in the EIA process by both decision makers and the general public.

Effectiveness and Lack of Standardization:
- The effectiveness of EIAs varies widely between countries. In some places, they are thorough and impactful, while in others, they may be reduced to a mere formality with little real influence on decision-making.
Defining the Extent of Impacts:
- Determining how far to assess impacts, such as on groundwater or climate, can be challenging. The scope of the EIA might be too broad or too narrow, leading to potential misjudgment of impacts.
Conflict and Diverse Standards:
- EIAs can lead to conflicts, especially when minority opinions oppose projects that may benefit the larger community. Different countries have varying standards, and environmental concerns might not always be prioritized, with decisions sometimes justified without adequately minimizing harm.
Boundaries of Investigation:
- Setting the boundaries for what to investigate in an EIA can be difficult, potentially leading to overlooked areas if the scope is too limited.
Indirect Impacts:
- EIAs often miss some indirect or cumulative effects of a project, which can lead to unforeseen consequences that might have been mitigated with a more comprehensive assessment.

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0195925519303269

Examples of EIA Applications:

Infrastructure Projects: EIAs are commonly used in large infrastructure projects, such as the construction of highways, dams, and airports. For instance, an EIA for a new highway might assess its potential impact on local wildlife, water bodies, and air quality, and propose measures such as wildlife crossings, pollution controls, and green spaces to mitigate these effects.
Resource Extraction: In mining or oil and gas projects, EIAs assess the potential for habitat destruction, water contamination, and social disruption. Mitigation measures might include restoring mined areas, treating wastewater, and providing compensation or alternative livelihoods for affected communities.

Activity: Study an example of an EIA, such as the story of Nauru and resource depletion.

7.1.15 Countries and regions have different guidance on the use of EIAs.

Outline the main differences in EIA guidance between two countries, considering the standardization and comprehensiveness of the process.
Compare the EIA processes in a developed country and a developing country,

Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) are crucial tools in sustainable development, providing a structured approach to evaluating the potential environmental, social, and economic impacts of a proposed project. However, the guidance on how EIAs are conducted can vary significantly between countries and regions, reflecting differences in regulatory frameworks, environmental priorities, and available resources. Despite these variations, baseline studies remain a core component of EIAs, used to predict and evaluate potential impacts and to propose mitigation strategies aimed at minimizing environmental harm.

The parameters assessed in baseline studies vary depending on the nature of the project, the location, and the environmental and social context. Here are some common parameters that might be addressed:

Physical Environment:
- Air Quality: Baseline air quality measurements are taken to determine the levels of pollutants such as particulate matter, nitrogen oxides, and sulfur dioxide. These measurements help predict how the project might affect air quality and guide the development of mitigation strategies, such as emission controls.
- Water Resources: This includes assessing the quality and quantity of surface and groundwater in the project area. Parameters such as pH, turbidity, and contaminant levels are measured to predict potential impacts on water quality and availability.
- Soil and Geology: The baseline study might analyze soil composition, erosion rates, and geological stability. This information is crucial for predicting impacts related to land disturbance, such as construction activities or mining operations.
Biological Environment:
- Biodiversity: Baseline studies assess the presence of flora and fauna in the project area, including any endangered or protected species. Understanding the biodiversity of the area helps in predicting the potential impacts on ecosystems and in developing strategies to protect critical habitats.
- Vegetation Cover: The type and extent of vegetation are documented to assess potential impacts from land clearing, deforestation, or habitat fragmentation. This parameter is important for evaluating carbon sequestration capacity and potential loss of ecosystem services.
Social and Economic Environment:
- Population and Demographics: Baseline studies gather data on the local population, including demographic profiles, settlement patterns, and land use. This information is used to predict social impacts such as displacement, changes in employment, and alterations to community structures.
- Public Health: The study may assess the current state of public health in the area, including the prevalence of diseases and access to healthcare. This baseline helps predict potential health impacts from pollution, increased traffic, or changes in water and air quality.
- Cultural Heritage: The study identifies any sites of cultural or historical significance within the project area. This information is crucial for predicting impacts on cultural heritage and for developing strategies to protect these resources.
Climate and Weather Patterns:
- Climate Data: Baseline studies often include an analysis of the local climate, including temperature, precipitation, and wind patterns. This data is important for predicting how the project might be affected by or contribute to climate change, as well as for designing appropriate mitigation measures.

Guidance Variability:

While baseline studies are a standard component of EIAs globally, the specific guidance and requirements for conducting these studies can vary. Some countries have detailed regulations that prescribe the parameters to be assessed and the methodologies to be used, while others provide more general guidelines, allowing for flexibility based on the project’s context.

Developed Countries: In regions like the European Union or North America, EIAs tend to follow stringent guidelines with a comprehensive list of parameters that must be assessed. These regions often require detailed modeling and long-term monitoring as part of the EIA process.
Developing Countries: In many developing countries, EIA processes may be less standardized, with varying levels of rigor depending on the country’s regulatory framework and the resources available for conducting studies. However, international projects funded by organizations like the World Bank or the United Nations often adhere to higher standards, even in these regions.

Comparison table summarizing the key Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) requirements across different countries:

Example: Germany: Stringent and Standardized EIA Processes

Germany is known for its rigorous environmental regulations and standardized EIA processes. The country’s approach to EIAs is highly structured, with detailed guidelines that ensure comprehensive assessments for all major projects.

EIA Guidance in Germany:

Legal Framework: Germany’s EIA process is governed by the Environmental Impact Assessment Act (UVPG), which implements the EU’s EIA Directive. The law requires a thorough assessment of environmental impacts for a wide range of projects, including industrial facilities, infrastructure developments, and large-scale agricultural projects.
Standardization: The process is highly standardized, with clear criteria for scoping, baseline studies, impact prediction, and public consultation. Specific environmental parameters—such as air quality, water resources, biodiversity, and noise pollution—must be systematically assessed.
Public Participation: Germany’s EIA process places a strong emphasis on public participation. Stakeholders, including local communities and environmental organizations, have the opportunity to review and comment on EIA reports. Public hearings are often held, and the results of the consultation process must be documented and considered in the final decision.
Comprehensive Mitigation Plans: The EIA in Germany typically includes detailed mitigation plans, with clear requirements for monitoring and reporting post-project impacts. These plans are legally binding, and failure to comply can result in significant penalties.

For a project like a new highway construction in Germany, the EIA would include detailed studies on air quality, noise, and impacts on local ecosystems. The process would involve extensive public consultation, and the final decision would be heavily influenced by the EIA findings and proposed mitigation measures.

Kenya: Less Standardized and Resource-Constrained EIA Processes

Kenya, like many developing countries, has an EIA process that is less standardized and often constrained by limited resources. While the country has made significant progress in environmental regulation, the implementation of EIAs can vary depending on the region and the scale of the project.

EIA Guidance in Kenya:

Legal Framework: The EIA process in Kenya is governed by the Environmental Management and Coordination Act (EMCA) of 1999 and is overseen by the National Environment Management Authority (NEMA). The law requires EIAs for any project that is likely to have a significant impact on the environment.
Flexibility in Implementation: Unlike Germany, Kenya’s EIA process is less rigidly standardized. While there are guidelines, the depth and breadth of the assessment can vary widely depending on the project and the resources available. For smaller projects or those in remote areas, the EIA might be less comprehensive.
Public Participation: Public participation is required, but the process may be less formalized than in Germany. While stakeholders are invited to give input, public awareness of the EIA process may be lower, and public hearings are not always held.
Mitigation and Monitoring: Mitigation plans are part of the EIA process, but ongoing monitoring and enforcement can be inconsistent. Resource constraints and capacity issues often mean that post-project monitoring is less rigorous, and enforcement of mitigation measures may be weaker.

For a project like a new agricultural development in a rural area of Kenya, the EIA might focus on basic environmental and social impacts, such as water use, soil erosion, and impacts on local communities. However, the assessment may be less detailed than in Germany, and while mitigation measures would be proposed, ongoing monitoring might be limited due to resource constraints.

7.1.16 Making EIAs public allows local citizens to have a role as stakeholders in decision-making.

Outline the role of public participation in the EIA process
Explain how public involvement in EIAs can improve the sustainability of a development project
Assess the role of government agencies in facilitating public participation in the EIA process

Making Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) public allows local citizens and other stakeholders to participate in the decision-making process for development projects. This participation is crucial for ensuring that the project considers environmental, social, and economic impacts from multiple perspectives, leading to more sustainable and equitable outcomes.

Merits of Engaging All Stakeholders in Decision-Making

Enhances Transparency and Accountability:
- Transparency: Publicly accessible EIAs promote open dialogue between project proponents, regulators, and the public, fostering trust in the decision-making process.
- Accountability: Stakeholder involvement holds project developers accountable for addressing environmental and social concerns, leading to more responsible project outcomes.
Improves Project Design and Sustainability:
- Local Knowledge: Local citizens bring valuable insights into the environmental and social context of the project area, helping to refine impact assessments and mitigation strategies.
- Informed Decision-Making: Engaging a diverse range of stakeholders, including government agencies, NGOs, and experts, ensures that all relevant issues are considered, leading to more balanced and sustainable decisions.
Strengthens Social License to Operate:
- Community Support: Projects that actively involve local citizens are more likely to gain community support, reducing the risk of opposition and conflict.
- Conflict Prevention: Early engagement helps identify and address potential conflicts, promoting smoother project implementation.
Public Involvement as a Fundamental Part of EIAs:
- Local Citizens: As the most directly affected stakeholders, local citizens need to see the value of the project and have their voices heard. Public meetings, educational outreach, and opportunities for feedback are essential for building community support.
- Government and NGOs: Government agencies ensure that regulatory procedures are followed, while NGOs often advocate for environmental protection and the rights of those whose voices are less heard, such as the environment and biodiversity.

Challenges of Engaging All Stakeholders

Complex Decision-Making: Balancing diverse interests can complicate and prolong the decision-making process.
Managing Expectations: Reconciling differing stakeholder priorities can be challenging.
Cost and Resources: Engaging all stakeholders requires significant resources, including time and money, to organize consultations and manage ongoing communication.

7.1.17 While a given resource may be renewable, the associated means of extracting, harvesting, transporting and processing it may be unsustainable

List three examples of renewable resources and briefly describe one unsustainable practice associated with the extraction, harvesting, transporting, or processing of each

Even though certain natural resources are classified as renewable, the methods used to extract, harvest, transport, and process them can sometimes be unsustainable. Unsustainable practices can lead to environmental degradation, resource depletion, and social inequities, undermining the sustainability of the resource itself. This understanding explores examples from bamboo harvesting, shrimp farming, and hydropower, highlighting how these processes can become unsustainable despite the renewable nature of the resources.

Timber: Bamboo Harvesting in Southeast Asia

Renewable Resource: Bamboo is considered a renewable resource because it grows quickly and can be harvested repeatedly without killing the plant.

Unsustainable Practices:
- Harvesting: In some areas of Southeast Asia, bamboo is harvested intensively without allowing sufficient time for regeneration. This overharvesting can lead to land degradation, soil erosion, and loss of biodiversity, as the ecosystem balance is disrupted.
- Transporting: Bamboo is often transported over long distances to processing facilities, which can contribute to greenhouse gas emissions. In addition, the construction of roads to access remote bamboo forests can further disturb local ecosystems.
- Processing: The processing of bamboo into products like flooring, furniture, or paper can be water- and energy-intensive. In areas where processing facilities lack proper waste management, this can lead to water pollution and excessive energy use, reducing the overall sustainability of bamboo products.
Impact: Unsustainable bamboo harvesting practices in Southeast Asia have led to land degradation and habitat loss, particularly in regions where bamboo plays a crucial role in maintaining soil stability and supporting local biodiversity.

Fishing: Tuna Fishing in the Pacific Ocean

https://www.vox.com/2014/4/23/5637044/overfishing-has-driven-pacific-bluefin-tuna-numbers-down-96-percent

Renewable Resource: Tuna are considered a renewable resource because they can reproduce and replenish their populations.
Unsustainable Practices:
- Harvesting: Tuna fishing, especially for highly prized species like bluefin tuna, often involves overfishing. In the Pacific Ocean, the use of large-scale purse seine nets and longlines has significantly reduced tuna populations, particularly of bluefin and yellowfin tuna, which are caught faster than they can reproduce.
- Transporting: Tuna are typically transported over long distances from fishing grounds to markets, often requiring refrigeration and freezing, which contributes to the carbon footprint of the fishing industry. Additionally, the infrastructure for transporting tuna can disrupt coastal environments.
- Processing: Tuna processing involves canning or freezing, which can generate considerable waste and pollution if not managed properly. Bycatch, the unintentional capture of non-target species like dolphins, sharks, and seabirds, is another significant issue, leading to the unnecessary depletion of marine biodiversity.
Impact: Overfishing of tuna in the Pacific has led to the depletion of key tuna stocks, threatening the sustainability of the fishery and disrupting marine ecosystems. This also has economic impacts, as communities that rely on tuna fishing face declining catches and income.

Hydropower: Large Dams on the Mekong River

https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Hydropower-Dams-in-the-Mekong-River-Basin_fig1_320348432

Renewable Resource: Hydropower is considered a renewable resource because it uses the natural flow of water to generate electricity.
Unsustainable Practices:
- Extraction/Harvesting: The construction of large dams for hydropower can disrupt river ecosystems, block fish migration routes, and alter natural water flows, leading to the degradation of aquatic habitats.
- Transporting: The energy generated by hydropower needs to be transmitted across long distances, often requiring the construction of extensive transmission lines that can disrupt landscapes and ecosystems.
- Processing: The operation of dams can result in changes to water quality and temperature, affecting downstream ecosystems and the communities that depend on the river for their water supply, agriculture, and fishing.
Impact: On the Mekong River, large dams have led to significant environmental and social challenges, including the displacement of communities, loss of biodiversity, and impacts on fisheries that millions of people depend on for food and income.

Activity: Consider one example of unsustainable extraction, harvesting, transporting and processing, for example, timber, fishing, hydropower.

7.1.18 Economic interests often favour short-term responses in production and consumption which undermine long-term sustainability.

List three reasons why short-term economic interests often lead to the overexploitation of natural resources.
Describe the ecological and economic consequences of overexploiting a renewable resource,

Economic interests often prioritize immediate profits and short-term gains over long-term sustainability, leading to the overexploitation and depletion of natural resources. This short-sighted approach can result in significant environmental degradation, loss of biodiversity, and long-term economic and social consequences. A prominent example of this dynamic is the overexploitation of global fish stocks, where excessive consumption driven by economic demand has led to the severe depletion of marine resources.

Case Study: Whaling and the Depletion of Whale Populations

Background and Context

Historical Importance of Whaling: For centuries, whaling was a major industry across the world, providing essential resources such as whale oil, which was used for lighting lamps, lubrication, and later, in the production of margarine and soap. Whalebone was used in fashion, and whale meat was a significant source of food in some cultures.
Growth in Demand: During the 18th and 19th centuries, the demand for whale products grew significantly, driven by the industrial revolution and the expansion of global markets. Whaling became increasingly commercialized, leading to the development of large-scale whaling fleets equipped with advanced technology.

2. Short-Term Economic Interests Driving Overexploitation

Profit Maximization: Whaling industries focused on maximizing short-term profits by harvesting as many whales as possible, with little regard for the long-term impacts on whale populations. This was driven by the lucrative market for whale oil and other products, which commanded high prices.
Technological Advancements: Innovations such as harpoon guns, steam-powered ships, and factory ships allowed whalers to hunt and process whales more efficiently, greatly increasing the number of whales killed each season.
Global Competition: Intense competition among whaling nations, including the United States, Norway, and Japan, spurred more aggressive hunting practices. Nations sought to outcompete each other by catching more whales, further accelerating the depletion of whale populations.

3. Consequences of Overexploitation

Depletion of Whale Populations: By the mid-20th century, several whale species, including the blue whale, fin whale, and humpback whale, were driven to the brink of extinction due to relentless hunting. Some populations declined by over 90%, with certain species becoming critically endangered.
Ecosystem Disruption: Whales play a crucial role in marine ecosystems, contributing to nutrient cycling and the health of marine food webs. The drastic reduction in whale populations disrupted these ecosystems, affecting other species and the overall balance of the ocean environment.
Economic Impacts: As whale populations dwindled, the whaling industry faced diminishing returns, with fewer whales available to hunt. This led to the collapse of many whaling economies, particularly in regions that were heavily dependent on whaling for income and employment.
Cultural and Social Effects: Whaling was deeply embedded in the culture and traditions of certain communities. The decline in whale populations and the subsequent restrictions on whaling practices disrupted these cultural practices and led to social and economic challenges in affected regions.

4. Efforts Toward Conservation and Sustainable Management

International Whaling Commission (IWC): Established in 1946, the IWC aimed to regulate whaling and conserve whale populations. In 1986, the IWC implemented a global moratorium on commercial whaling, allowing whale populations to recover.
Sanctuaries and Protected Areas: Various marine sanctuaries and protected areas have been established to safeguard critical whale habitats from hunting and other human activities. These areas have provided safe havens for whale populations to recover.
Whale Watching Industry: As an alternative to hunting, many coastal communities have developed whale watching as a sustainable economic activity. This industry generates revenue through tourism while promoting conservation and raising awareness about the importance of protecting whales.
Scientific Research and Monitoring: Ongoing research and monitoring efforts are essential to understanding whale populations and the effectiveness of conservation measures. Data collected from these activities inform international policy decisions and help ensure the continued recovery of whale species.

Activity: Consider one example of resources that have been depleted by excessive consumption, such as whales, fish stocks, forests.

7.1.19 Natural resource insecurity hinders socio-economic development and can lead to environmental degradation and geopolitical tensions and conflicts.

List three ways in which the extraction and processing of natural resources can contribute to geopolitical tensions.
Outline the relationship between natural resource insecurity and socio-economic development

Natural resource insecurity, which occurs when access to essential resources is limited or threatened, can have profound implications for socio-economic development, environmental sustainability, and geopolitical stability. The uneven distribution of resources such as oil, minerals, and rare earth elements can lead to environmental degradation, hinder economic progress, and exacerbate geopolitical tensions, potentially resulting in conflict.

Resource insecurity harms business confidence, hindering investments that could improve lives. Conflicts over scarce resources undermine the social cohesion needed to address social and environmental challenges.

This understanding explores the example of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) and its vast reserves of cobalt and other minerals, illustrating how resource insecurity can lead to environmental harm, hindered development, and geopolitical challenges.

Case Study: Cobalt Mining in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC)

https://geology.com/world/democratic-republic-of-the-congo-satellite-image.shtml#google_vignette

https://www.aljazeera.com/gallery/2022/11/4/dr-congos-faltering-fight-against-illegal-cobalt-mines

Background and Context

Global Importance of Cobalt: Cobalt is a critical component in the production of rechargeable batteries, which are used in electric vehicles (EVs), mobile phones, laptops, and other electronic devices. As the demand for renewable energy and digital technology grows, so does the demand for cobalt.
Cobalt Reserves in the DRC: The DRC holds more than 60% of the world’s cobalt reserves, making it a key player in the global supply chain for this essential mineral. However, the country’s wealth of natural resources has not translated into widespread socio-economic development.

Resource Insecurity and Its Impacts

Hindered Socio-Economic Development: Despite its rich cobalt reserves, the DRC remains one of the poorest countries in the world. The mining sector, while lucrative, has not significantly improved the living standards of the general population. The wealth generated from cobalt mining is often concentrated in the hands of a few, leading to inequality and poverty.
- Child Labor and Poor Working Conditions: Cobalt mining in the DRC is frequently associated with exploitative labor practices, including the use of child labor. Miners often work in hazardous conditions without proper safety measures, leading to frequent accidents and long-term health issues.
- Lack of Infrastructure and Services: The revenue from cobalt mining has not been adequately invested in infrastructure, education, or healthcare, perpetuating a cycle of poverty and underdevelopment in the DRC.
Environmental Degradation: The extraction of cobalt and other minerals in the DRC has led to significant environmental harm.
- Soil and Water Contamination: Mining activities have resulted in the contamination of soil and water sources with heavy metals and other pollutants, which affects local communities who rely on these resources for drinking water and agriculture.
- Deforestation and Habitat Destruction: The expansion of mining operations has led to deforestation and the destruction of natural habitats, threatening biodiversity in the region.
Geopolitical Tensions and Conflict: The DRC’s vast mineral wealth has been both a blessing and a curse, fueling geopolitical tensions and internal conflicts.
- Control of Resources: Various armed groups in the DRC have sought to control mining areas as a means of financing their activities. This has led to prolonged conflict and instability in the region, making it difficult for the government to establish effective control and governance.
- Global Supply Chain Dependence: The global dependence on cobalt from the DRC has made the stability of the region a matter of international concern. Countries that rely on cobalt for their industries are interested in maintaining access to this resource, which can lead to geopolitical maneuvering and tensions.
- China’s Dominance in Processing: Nearly all cobalt extracted in the DRC is exported to China for processing, giving China significant influence over the global supply chain for this critical mineral. This has implications for global trade dynamics and geopolitical relations, particularly between China and other major economies that depend on cobalt for their technological industries.

Consequences of Resource Insecurity

Delayed Development: The DRC’s reliance on mining has hindered the diversification of its economy, making it vulnerable to fluctuations in global commodity prices. The lack of investment in other sectors has stunted broader economic development.
Environmental and Health Crises: The environmental degradation caused by mining has led to public health crises, including increased rates of respiratory diseases and other health issues related to pollution.
Regional and Global Tensions: The DRC’s resource wealth has contributed to ongoing conflict within the country and has attracted international attention, creating a complex web of geopolitical interests that complicate efforts to stabilize the region.

Potential Pathways to Address Resource Insecurity

Improved Governance and Regulation: Strengthening governance and regulatory frameworks in the DRC could help ensure that mining activities are conducted responsibly, with benefits more equitably distributed across society.
International Cooperation: Global initiatives that promote transparency in the mining sector, such as the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI), can help reduce corruption and ensure that resource revenues are used to support sustainable development.
Sustainable Mining Practices: Investing in more sustainable mining practices that minimize environmental impact and improve working conditions could help mitigate some of the negative consequences of resource extraction.
Diversification of the Economy: Encouraging economic diversification beyond mining could help the DRC reduce its dependency on cobalt and build a more resilient and inclusive economy.

Activity: Consider one example where resource insecurity may have led to hindered development, environmental harm, geopolitical problems or conflict.

7.1.20 Resource security can be brought about by reductions in demand, increases in supply or changing technologies.

List three methods for reducing demand for natural resources
Outline how precision agriculture can increase food security by optimizing the use of agricultural resources
Describe how water conservation techniques, such as drip irrigation, can enhance water security in arid regions

Resource security, the availability of sufficient natural resources to meet current and future demands, is a critical factor in ensuring sustainable development and stability. Achieving resource security can involve reducing demand through efficiency and conservation, increasing supply through sustainable practices, or leveraging technological innovations to reduce reliance on scarce or imported resources. This understanding explores examples of how resource security can be enhanced in the areas of food, water, and energy.

Food Security: Increasing Supply Through Sustainable Agriculture
Example: Precision Agriculture in the United States

Context: Food security is the availability of sufficient, safe, and nutritious food to meet the dietary needs of a population. As global populations grow, the demand for food increases, making it crucial to enhance food production without further straining the environment.
Increasing Supply: Precision agriculture is an innovative approach that uses technology to increase the efficiency and sustainability of food production. In the United States, precision agriculture involves the use of GPS technology, sensors, and data analytics to optimize farming practices.
- Benefits:
  - Resource Efficiency: Farmers can apply water, fertilizers, and pesticides more precisely, reducing waste and minimizing environmental impact.
  - Higher Yields: By monitoring soil conditions, weather patterns, and crop health in real-time, farmers can make informed decisions that increase crop yields.
  - Sustainability: Precision agriculture helps maintain soil health and biodiversity, supporting long-term food production without degrading the environment.
Impact on Food Security: By increasing the efficiency and sustainability of food production, precision agriculture enhances food security by ensuring a stable and sufficient supply of food while minimizing environmental impacts.

Water Security: Reducing Demand Through Water Conservation
Example: Water Conservation Strategies in Israel

Context: Water security refers to the availability of adequate and clean water to sustain livelihoods, human well-being, and socio-economic development. In arid and semi-arid regions, water scarcity is a significant challenge, requiring innovative approaches to reduce demand and increase efficiency.
Reducing Demand: Israel is a global leader in water conservation and management, employing a range of strategies to reduce water consumption and increase efficiency.
- Drip Irrigation: Israel pioneered drip irrigation technology, which delivers water directly to the roots of plants, reducing evaporation and water waste. This method is particularly effective in agriculture, where it can reduce water use by up to 50% compared to traditional irrigation methods.
- Water Recycling: Israel recycles nearly 90% of its wastewater, treating it to high standards for agricultural and industrial use. This practice significantly reduces the demand for freshwater resources.
- Public Awareness Campaigns: The Israeli government has implemented extensive public awareness campaigns to encourage water conservation among citizens, further reducing household water consumption.
Impact on Water Security: By reducing water demand through conservation technologies and practices, Israel has significantly enhanced its water security, even in the face of limited natural freshwater resources.

Energy Security: Technological Shifts Reducing Reliance on Imported Energy
Example: Renewable Energy Expansion in Germany

Context: Energy security is the uninterrupted availability of energy sources at an affordable price. Many countries have traditionally relied on imported fossil fuels, making them vulnerable to supply disruptions and price volatility. Transitioning to renewable energy can enhance energy security by reducing dependence on imports.
Technological Shifts: Germany’s Energiewende (energy transition) is a national strategy to shift from fossil fuels to renewable energy sources, such as wind, solar, and biomass.
- Wind and Solar Power: Germany has invested heavily in wind and solar power, increasing the domestic supply of clean energy. Wind power, in particular, has become a significant contributor to Germany’s electricity grid, with large wind farms located both onshore and offshore.
- Energy Storage: To address the intermittency of renewable energy, Germany has also invested in energy storage technologies, such as batteries and pumped hydro storage, to ensure a stable energy supply.
- Grid Modernization: Germany is modernizing its energy grid to better integrate renewable energy sources, improving efficiency and reducing energy losses during transmission.
Impact on Energy Security: By increasing the domestic production of renewable energy and reducing reliance on imported fossil fuels, Germany has enhanced its energy security. This transition also contributes to the country’s goals of reducing greenhouse gas emissions and combating climate change.

Activity: Consider one example of increasing resource security in each of food, water and energy.

7.1.21 Economic globalization can increase supply, making countries increasingly interdependent, but it may reduce national resource security.

List three methods by which countries can increase their supply of natural resources through globalization
Outline the role of international trade in increasing resource supply

Economic globalization has changed how countries access and distribute natural resources.

Nations can increase resource supplies through international trade, technological innovation, and external aid.
Global trade networks, supported by transportation advances, have made countries more interconnected.
This interconnectedness can either strengthen or weaken national resource security, depending on management.
Diverse trade networks can enhance economic resilience, but overdependence on imports can lead to vulnerabilities, as seen during the COVID-19 pandemic.
Technological advancements, like genetic engineering and desalination, play a key role in increasing resource availability.
International aid provides temporary relief for resource shortages but does not address long-term resource insecurity.
Competition for scarce resources can lead to conflict, resulting in long-lasting wars, environmental damage, and regional instability.

Food Security: Globalized Agriculture and Dependence on Imports

Example: Rice Imports in West Africa

Context: Globalization has led to the widespread trade of agricultural products, enabling countries to access a diverse range of food items from around the world. This has increased food supply and contributed to food security in many regions.
Impact of Globalization:
- Increased Supply: Economic globalization has allowed West African countries to import rice from major producers like Thailand and Vietnam. This has helped meet the growing demand for rice, a staple food in the region, and has provided access to affordable food for millions of people.
- Reduced National Resource Security: However, this dependence on rice imports has reduced national food security in West Africa. If there are disruptions in the global rice supply chain, such as during the COVID-19 pandemic or due to trade restrictions, these countries may face food shortages. Additionally, the focus on imports has sometimes led to the neglect of local agricultural development, making these countries more vulnerable to external shocks.
Conclusion: While globalization has increased the availability of food in West Africa, it has also created a dependency on imports, reducing national food security and exposing the region to the risks associated with global market fluctuations.

Example: Water-Intensive Crop Imports in the Middle East

Context: Water scarcity is a significant challenge in arid regions like the Middle East. To manage this scarcity, some countries rely on the concept of "virtual water trade," where they import water-intensive crops instead of producing them domestically, thus conserving their limited water resources.
Impact of Globalization:
- Increased Supply: Through global trade, countries in the Middle East can import water-intensive crops like wheat, rice, and sugar, from water-rich countries. This practice effectively increases the water supply by reducing the need to use domestic water resources for agriculture.
- Reduced National Resource Security: However, this approach creates a hidden dependency on external water resources embedded in imported goods. If global trade is disrupted or if exporting countries face their own water crises, the importing countries may struggle to secure these essential commodities. This reliance on virtual water trade reduces their control over water security.
Conclusion: Globalization has enabled water-scarce regions to manage their water resources more effectively through virtual water trade. However, this also makes them vulnerable to global market disruptions, reducing their national water security.

Energy Security: Global Energy Markets and Dependency on Imported Fossil Fuels

Example: Europe’s Dependency on Russian Natural Gas

Context: Economic globalization has connected global energy markets, allowing countries to import fossil fuels like oil and natural gas from regions with abundant resources. This has helped meet growing energy demands and has supported economic growth in energy-importing countries.
Impact of Globalization:
- Increased Supply: Europe’s energy needs have been met in large part by importing natural gas from Russia. The availability of this energy resource through global trade has supported Europe’s industrial and residential energy demands, contributing to economic stability and growth.
- Reduced National Resource Security: However, Europe’s heavy reliance on Russian natural gas has created significant energy security risks. Geopolitical tensions between Russia and European countries, particularly in the context of the Russia-Ukraine conflict, have highlighted the vulnerabilities of this dependency. Disruptions in natural gas supplies due to political conflicts, sanctions, or supply manipulations can lead to energy shortages, economic disruption, and increased energy costs.
Conclusion: Globalization has increased the availability of energy resources in Europe, but it has also created a dependency on imported fossil fuels from geopolitically unstable regions, undermining national energy security.

Application of skills: Use secondary data sources, such as Gapminder, Our World in Data and World Bank to
investigate the use of a named resource (for example, steel, concrete or inorganic fertilizer) by two different societies. Use graphs and statistical tests to show results. (Remember that one data source for secondary data is not adequate for reliable results.)

Key Terms

Natural Resources
Renewable Resources
Non-Renewable Resources
Natural Capital
Natural Income
Ecosystem Services
Ecosystem Goods

Sustainability
Resource Security
Economic Globalization
Overexploitation
Virtual Water Trade
Precision Agriculture

Technological Innovation
Global Supply Chains
International Trade
Energy Security
Water Security
Food Security

Geopolitical Tensions
Environmental Degradation
Sustainable Yield

Classroom Materials

Subtopic 7.1 Resource Use and Management Presentation.pptx
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Subtopic 7.1 Resource Use and Management Workbook.docx
File Size:	821 kb
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Sustainable and Unsustainable Use of Resource Case Study.

Case Studies

Brief examples of the four types of ecosystem services (supporting, regulating, provisioning, cultural) with a basic understanding of their importance
1 case study each of a non-renewable and renewable resource & how it is dynamic and has changed over time

EIAs
Guide to EIAs worksheet
Northern Michigan Mining Background Information in class activity
Northern Michigan Mining Maps - in class activity
Northern Michigan Website Information - in class activity
Sample EIA - Mekong River Dam
Comparing Environmental Impact Assessments

Correct use of terminology is a key skill in ESS. It is essential to use key terms correctly when communicating your understanding, particularly in assessments. Use the quizlet flashcards or other tools such as learn, scatter, space race, speller and test to help you master the vocabulary.

Useful Links
The Sustainable Scale Project
List of Natural Resources - Buzzle
National population pyramids
A case study: The Peruvian Anchovy (Engraulis ringens) - Open Door
Rio Declaration on Environment and Development - UN

EIA Case Study
Creating an Environmental Impact Assessment
This activity is designed to help you better understand the concept of an EIA and the process by which it is carried out.
Isua Iron Ore in Greenland - BBC News 24 October 2013
Three Gorges Dam - National Geographic

In The News

How the world’s oceans could be running out of fish - BBC Future News 21 September 2012
This is a great article about agroforestry in the Sahel as a model of sustainable agriculture - Scientific American 28 January 2011
Overfishing and ecologically sustainable yield in Jamaica - from American Scientist magazine
According to the film, The End of the Line: The World Without Fish, scientists predict that if we continue fishing as we are now, we will see the end of most seafood by 2048. The link is to the 1st of 3 parts on YouTube; you can follow the remaining 2 parts from there.
UN Agenda 21 - This is the ‘Chapter 8’ referred to in the Natural capital and sustainability.doc worksheet from class
To get the Gold, They Will Have To Kill Every One Of Us Salon Feb 10, 2013
The “Zero Waste” grocery store – A Berlin shop which has developed a sustainable shopping model with the goal of reducing solid domestic waste.
Why are people in Serbia protesting plans to dig a giant lithium mine?

International-mindedness:

There are marked cultural differences in attitudes to the management of natural capital.

TOK:

"To what extent does the pursuit of economic growth conflict with the ethical responsibility to ensure sustainable resource management?"

Video Clips

National Geographic Explorer Nzigiyimpa Leonidas defines 'natural resources.'

We're familiar with the consequences of overspending, but when we overspend on the environment we risk bankrupting our greatest gift.

Naturalogic aims to identify natural capital dependency across organizations, products, supply chains and investments and to manage risks from increasing environmental costs to ultimately build more sustainable business models and brands.

Plants, animals, even entire ecosystems are disappearing from the Earth. So what? In "What Is Nature Worth?", the University of Minnesota's Institute on the Environment offers a three-minute look at what biodiversity loss is really costing us -- and what we can do about it.

Explore what makes trees a vital part of cities, and how urban spaces throughout history have embraced the importance of trees.

Every year, the world uses 35 billion barrels of oil. This massive scale of fossil fuel dependence pollutes the earth, and it won’t last forever. On the other hand, we have abundant sun, water and wind, which are all renewable energy sources. So why don’t we exchange our fossil fuel dependence for an existence based only on renewables?

Cellulosic ethanol is one of the simplest and least expensive biofuels to make from cellulosic biomass. Most ethanol sold in the Pacific Northwest is made from corn grown in the Midwest. AHB is working to make ethanol more sustainable in the PNW by producing cellulosic ethanol from locally grown poplar trees.

The creators of YERT have recently announced that they are now working on a DOCUMENTARY FEATURE FILM about SOLAR ROADWAYS

In this video Paul Andersen explains how the resources required for survival come from the Earth. The resources are not evenly distributed on the planet and neither are the humans. According to the NGSS we need to limit the use of nonrenewable resources (like oil and coal) through regulations and increase the use of renewable resources

Every day, we use materials from the earth without thinking, for free. But what if we had to pay for their true value: would it make us more careful about what we use and what we waste? Think of Pavan Sukhdev as nature's banker -- assessing the value of the Earth's assets. Eye-opening charts will make you think differently about the cost of air, water, trees ..

The presentation focuses on the need to address natural resource degradation, governance and benefit-sharing as fundamental components of peacebuilding in Afghanistan and other post-conflict countries

Jonathon Porritt, is an eminent writer, broadcaster and commentator on sustainable development. He is Co-Founder of Forum for the Future, the UK's leading sustainable development charity.
He is Co-Director of The Prince of Wales's Business and Sustainability Programme, was formerly Director of Friends of the Earth

The big blue buildings of Ikea have sprouted solar panels and wind turbines; inside, shelves are stocked with LED lighting and recycled cotton. Why? Because as Steve Howard puts it: "Sustainability has gone from a nice-to-do to a must-do." Howard, the chief sustainability officer at the furniture megastore, talks about his quest to sell eco-friendly materials and practices -- both internally and to worldwide customers -- and lays a challenge for other global giants

Rob Hopkins reminds us that the oil our world depends on is steadily running out. He proposes a unique solution to this problem -- the Transition response, where we prepare ourselves for life without oil and sacrifice our luxuries to build systems and communities that are completely independent of fossil fuels.

For thousands of years, they lay dormant in the soil until suddenly, they became the driving force behind a technical revolution: rare earths. Researchers drill for new deposits and find more environmentally friendly ways of processing the materials. A fascinating glimpse at cutting-edge research that could make our green technologies of the future even greener.