ESS Subtopic 8.2 Urban Systems and Planning

subtopic 8.2: Urban Systems and Urban Planning

https://www.lordaecksargent.com/design/urban-design-and-planning/districts-corridors

As global urbanization continues to accelerate, this subtopic examines the challenges and opportunities that arise in planning and managing cities. Students will explore the interconnected systems that sustain urban life, such as transportation, waste management, and energy supply, while also considering the environmental and social impacts of urban growth. Through case studies and discussions on sustainable development, this subtopic emphasizes the importance of thoughtful urban planning in creating resilient, sustainable cities for the future.

This SL unit is a minimum of 3 hours.

Guiding Questions:

To what extent are urban systems similar to natural ecosystems?
How can reimagining urban systems create a more sustainable future?
What role do social equity and inclusivity play in the success of sustainable urban planning?
How do different urban planning models address the challenges posed by climate change and environmental degradation?

Understanding:

urban systems

8.2.1 Urban areas contain urban ecosystems.

Explain how both biotic and abiotic components interact within an urban ecosystem to influence its overall functioning.

Urban areas are dynamic spaces, typically defined as cities or towns and the regions that surround them, where populations are interconnected through social and economic interactions. These interactions can occur on regional, national, or even global scales. Urban areas are characterized by a predominance of non-agricultural jobs, high population density, and extensive built-up environments, featuring infrastructure such as roads, metros, railways, buildings, and utilities. While urbanization can lead to efficient and well-functioning cities, it can also create significant environmental pressures if not carefully planned and managed.

An urban area is a city or town and the surrounding region where most inhabitants are engaged in non-agricultural jobs. The population is linked by complex social and economic interactions, which may range from local to global scales.
Urban areas, often thought of as purely human-made environments, actually function as complex ecosystems. These urban ecosystems, much like natural ecosystems, consist of both biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) components. The interactions between these components are crucial for the functioning and sustainability of urban environments.

https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/sustainable-cities/articles/10.3389/frsc.2023.1281430/full

Abiotic Components in Urban Ecosystems:

Soil: Although often modified or covered by pavement and buildings, soil in urban areas supports vegetation and is involved in water infiltration, nutrient cycling, and even carbon sequestration.
Water: Urban water bodies, such as rivers, lakes, ponds, and artificial water features, are vital for biodiversity, recreation, and human consumption. The management of water resources in cities is a critical aspect of urban planning.
Air: Air quality in urban areas is influenced by factors such as traffic, industrial activity, and the presence of green spaces. Poor air quality can impact both human health and the health of the urban ecosystem.
Climate: The urban microclimate, influenced by factors like the urban heat island effect, can differ significantly from surrounding rural areas. The urban climate affects the comfort of residents and the survival of urban flora and fauna.
Topography: The physical layout of urban areas, including hills, valleys, and water bodies, influences drainage patterns, building design, and the distribution of green spaces.

Urban Ecosystems in Practice:

Interactions: In urban ecosystems, the interactions between biotic and abiotic components are complex. For example, vegetation affects air quality, which in turn influences the health of both humans and animals. Water bodies provide habitat for aquatic species and help regulate the local climate, while soil supports plant growth and acts as a filter for water and air pollutants.
Human Impact: Urban ecosystems are heavily influenced by human activities, including construction, pollution, and land-use changes. Understanding these impacts is crucial for developing strategies to mitigate negative effects and enhance the sustainability of urban areas.
Ecosystem Services: Urban ecosystems provide a range of ecosystem services that benefit human populations, such as temperature regulation, flood control, air purification, and recreational opportunities. Recognizing the value of these services is key to effective urban planning.

https://earth.org/urban-wildlife/

Biotic Components in Urban Ecosystems:

Plants: Urban vegetation includes parks, gardens, street trees, green roofs, and even small patches of natural vegetation. These plants play a crucial role in providing oxygen, improving air quality, regulating temperature, and supporting urban wildlife.
Animals: Urban areas are home to a variety of animals, including birds, insects, mammals, and even some reptiles. Some species thrive in urban environments, while others may struggle. The presence of wildlife can indicate the health of the urban ecosystem.
Other Forms of Life: This includes fungi, bacteria, and other microorganisms that are essential for processes like decomposition and nutrient cycling within urban ecosystems.

8.2.2 An urban area is a built-up area with a high population density, buildings and infrastructure.

Define an urban area
Explain two key characteristics that distinguish urban areas from rural areas.

https://www.yourdictionary.com/articles/rural-urban-suburban-difference

Urban areas are defined by their dense concentration of buildings, infrastructure, and people. These built-up environments are designed to support a wide range of activities, including residential living, cultural expression, economic production, trade, and social interaction. In contrast, rural areas are characterized by lower population densities and more dispersed settlements. This understanding is key to grasping the fundamental differences between urban and rural environments and their respective roles in society.

Characteristics of Urban Areas:

High Population Density: Urban areas typically have a high concentration of people living in close proximity. This density is a defining feature of cities, towns, and suburbs, contributing to the vibrancy and complexity of urban life.
Built-Up Infrastructure: Urban environments are marked by an extensive array of buildings, roads, transportation networks, utilities, and other infrastructure. This infrastructure supports the diverse activities that occur in urban areas, such as housing, commerce, education, healthcare, and recreation.
Functionality: Urban areas are multifunctional, serving as hubs for residential living, cultural activities, economic production, trade, and social interaction. The concentration of these functions in a compact area is what distinguishes urban areas from rural ones.

Types of Urban Areas:

Cities: Large urban areas with extensive infrastructure, high population density, and a wide range of services and amenities. Cities are often cultural and economic centers with significant influence on regional, national, and global scales.
Towns: Smaller than cities, towns still have a dense population and built-up infrastructure but on a smaller scale. Towns typically serve as local centers for trade, education, and social interaction.
Suburbs: Residential areas on the outskirts of cities, suburbs are characterized by lower population densities than city centers but still have significant infrastructure. Suburbs often serve as commuter communities where residents travel to nearby cities for work and other activities.

Urban vs. Rural Areas:

Urban Areas: Cities, towns, and suburbs are all classified as urban areas. These places are designed to accommodate large populations and are characterized by their dense assemblage of buildings and infrastructure. Urban areas are centers of economic activity, cultural development, and social interaction.
Rural Areas: In contrast, rural areas are characterized by lower population densities and more dispersed settlements. The built environment in rural areas is less concentrated, with more open space, agricultural land, and natural landscapes. The primary activities in rural areas often include agriculture, forestry, and resource extraction.

Activity: Create a Venn Diagram showing the differences and similarities between urban and rural areas. Consider the following:

population density
building density
energy
cultural
productivity
trade
social
microclimate

transport
water supply
sanitation
plants
animals
services
pollution

8.2.3 An urban area works as a system.

Define the term "urban system"
Explain how an urban system is similar to a natural ecosystem.
List four key components of an urban system and briefly state the role of each component.
Outline the main flows in an urban system, including an example of each.
Describe the relationship between the inputs and outputs of an urban system, using a specific example of a city.

https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Physical-exchanges-between-the-urban-system-and-the-environment_fig2_271420213

Urban areas function as complex, interconnected systems where various components interact to support the lives of their inhabitants and the overall functioning of the city. These components include buildings, microclimates, transportation networks, goods and services, power and energy systems, water and sewage infrastructure, and the living organisms within the urban environment, including humans, plants, and animals. Understanding an urban area as a system is crucial for addressing challenges related to waste management, pollution, urban efficiency, sustainability, and resilience.

Urban Systems as Interconnected Networks:

Buildings: Structures in urban areas are not just physical entities but are integral parts of the urban system. They house people, businesses, and institutions, and interact with other system components like energy and transportation.
Microclimate: The microclimate within an urban area refers to the localized climate conditions, which can be influenced by factors such as building density, green spaces, and human activities. The urban heat island effect is a key example of how urban microclimates differ from surrounding rural areas.
Transport Systems: Transportation networks, including roads, railways, subways, and bike paths, are crucial for moving people, goods, and services throughout the urban area. Efficient transport systems reduce congestion, pollution, and resource consumption.
Goods and Services: The flow of goods and services within an urban system includes everything from food and consumer products to healthcare, education, and entertainment. These flows are vital for sustaining the population and the economy.
Power/Energy Systems: Urban areas rely on complex energy systems to provide electricity, heating, and fuel for transportation. The efficiency and sustainability of these energy systems are critical for reducing pollution and mitigating climate change.
Water and Sewage Supply: The infrastructure that provides clean water and manages wastewater is a vital part of the urban system. Efficient water and sewage systems ensure public health, support economic activities, and protect the environment.
Living Organisms: Humans, plants, and animals within urban areas interact with each other and with the built environment. These interactions can influence everything from air quality and temperature to mental health and biodiversity.

Social Inputs, Processes, and Outputs in Urban Systems

While the physical aspects of urban systems—such as buildings, infrastructure, energy, and water—are often the primary focus, it is essential to recognize the significant role of social inputs, processes, and outputs. These social elements contribute to the unique character and functionality of urban areas, influencing everything from economic productivity to cultural identity.

Social Inputs: These include ideas, information, and money, which flow into the urban system from various sources. These inputs drive innovation, shape public policies, and fuel the economy.
Processes: Social processes within urban systems encompass activities such as work, education, recreation, and protest. These processes are crucial for maintaining social cohesion, fostering economic growth, and facilitating cultural exchange.
Social Outputs: The outputs of these social processes can be seen in the form of economic growth, cultural developments, political movements, and public health outcomes. These outputs are critical indicators of a city's overall success and vitality.

Emergent Properties of Urban Systems

Urban systems exhibit emergent properties—characteristics that arise from the interactions between the system's individual parts, which do not exist within the parts themselves. These emergent properties give each city or town its distinct identity, culture, and political landscape. For example:

Distinct Urban Identities: Cities like New York and Nairobi have developed unique characters and cultures due to the interactions of their inhabitants, historical developments, and geographical contexts. These differences are not merely a result of physical infrastructure but are deeply rooted in social processes and interactions.
Human Wellbeing and Ecological Health: The most critical emergent properties of urban areas are human wellbeing and ecological health. These properties are central to the function of urban systems and must be prioritized when evaluating the efficiency and success of a city. Urban planners aim to create environments where both human and ecological needs are met, fostering a sustainable and healthy urban ecosystem.

https://www.mdpi.com/2624-6511/2/4/32

Urban Efficiency

Urban efficiency refers to the ability of an urban system to meet the needs of its inhabitants while minimizing resource use and waste production. Efficient urban systems align their outputs with their intended functions, prioritizing human wellbeing and ecological health.

Efficiency in Urban Planning: Efficiency is a key consideration in urban planning, where the goal is to optimize the ratio of inputs to outputs. For example, an efficient energy system would provide power to a large population while minimizing energy consumption. Similarly, efficient transportation systems reduce travel time and emissions while maximizing accessibility and mobility.
Challenges in Measuring Efficiency: Unlike physical outputs like waste or pollution, which are relatively easy to quantify, measuring the efficiency of social and ecological outputs, such as human wellbeing or ecological regeneration, is more complex. True urban efficiency goes beyond mere resource consumption and waste reduction; it also includes enhancing the quality of life for residents and ensuring the sustainability of the urban environment.
Doughnut Economics and Urban Efficiency: The concept of Doughnut Economics offers a framework for understanding urban efficiency in terms of both social and ecological thresholds. According to this model, cities should operate within planetary boundaries while ensuring that human needs are met. Efficient urban systems not only minimize their ecological footprint but also contribute to the regeneration of natural systems, creating a sustainable balance between human activity and environmental health.

Urban Resilience

Urban resilience is the capacity of a city to recover from disruptions and maintain its essential functions. Similar to natural ecosystems, which can recover from disturbances when certain conditions are present, urban systems can also demonstrate resilience if they are designed and managed effectively. Resilient urban systems exhibit several key characteristics:

Diverse and Ample Resources: For a city to be resilient, it must have access to a variety of energy, food, and water sources. These resources should not only be abundant but also sourced locally and from diverse external suppliers. This diversity ensures that the city can continue to provide for its population even if local resources are compromised, by relying on multiple trade networks and backup supply chains during crises.
Variety and Availability of Services: A resilient city offers a wide range of services—such as education, healthcare, housing, and social safety nets—that can continue to operate even when some are temporarily disrupted. The redundancy in these services ensures that the basic needs of the population are met regardless of challenges.
Durable and Redundant Infrastructure: Infrastructure in resilient cities is built to endure natural and man-made disasters, such as earthquakes, floods, and extreme weather events. This includes designing buildings, roads, and transportation systems that can adapt to changing environmental conditions. Multiple transportation options, including roads, bike lanes, public transit, and pedestrian paths, are essential to maintaining mobility even when parts of the transport network are compromised.
Diverse Populations and Strong Social Ties: Cities with diverse populations are more likely to generate a wide range of ideas and approaches to urban challenges. Strong social networks within communities, supported by institutions like schools and community centers, enable residents to support each other during times of crisis, fostering resilience at the grassroots level
Effective Governance and a Culture of Innovation: Resilient cities benefit from strong leadership and a culture that encourages innovation and adaptability. Effective governance ensures that resources are quickly and efficiently mobilized during crises, while a culture of innovation promotes the development of creative, collaborative solutions to urban challenges such as pollution, overcrowding, and resource scarcity.

Application of skills: Create a systems flow diagram representing an urban system.

https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/sustainable-cities/articles/10.3389/frsc.2020.00012/full

8.2.4 Urbanization is the population shift from rural to urban areas.

Define the term "urbanization"
Explain urbanization's significance in the context of global population shifts.
List three key changes in land use that occur as a result of urbanization.
Outline the main environmental impacts of urbanization on rural areas.
Describe how the process of urbanization transforms a rural area into a built-up, industrialized urban center.
Explain the social and economic drivers of urbanization and how they contribute to the population shift from rural to urban areas.

Urbanization refers to the process by which populations move from rural areas to urban centers, leading to the growth of cities and towns. This shift is accompanied by significant changes in land use, as rural landscapes are transformed into built-up, industrialized areas characterized by dense human settlements and extensive infrastructure. Understanding urbanization is crucial for analyzing the social, economic, and environmental impacts of this global phenomenon.

Population Shift:

Rural to Urban Migration: Urbanization involves a large-scale movement of people from rural areas, where agriculture and natural landscapes dominate, to urban areas, where industrial, commercial, and residential activities are concentrated. This migration is driven by various factors, including the search for better employment opportunities, access to education and healthcare, and improved living standards.
Demographic Changes: As populations concentrate in urban areas, cities grow both in size and density. This demographic shift leads to changes in the social fabric of both rural and urban areas, influencing everything from family structures to community networks.

Land Use Transformation:

Built-Up Areas: Urbanization leads to the conversion of rural land—often used for agriculture or natural habitats—into built-up areas. This includes the construction of residential buildings, commercial centers, industrial facilities, roads, and other infrastructure.
Industrialization: As urban areas expand, they often become centers of industrial activity. Factories, warehouses, and other industrial facilities contribute to the economic growth of the city but also bring challenges such as pollution and the need for waste management.
Infrastructure Development: Urbanization requires the development of extensive infrastructure, including transportation networks (roads, railways, airports), utilities (water supply, sewage systems, electricity), and social infrastructure (schools, hospitals, parks). This infrastructure is essential for supporting the dense and continuous human settlement that characterizes urban areas.

Impact on Rural Areas:

Depopulation: As people migrate to cities, rural areas may experience depopulation, leading to a decline in agricultural production and the abandonment of rural communities. This can result in social and economic challenges for those who remain in rural areas.
Land Use Change: The expansion of urban areas often encroaches on surrounding rural land, leading to changes in land use patterns. Agricultural land may be converted to urban use, affecting food production and natural ecosystems.

Environmental Implications:

Loss of Natural Habitats: Urbanization often leads to the loss of natural habitats as land is cleared for development. This can result in reduced biodiversity and the disruption of ecosystems.
Increased Pollution: The concentration of people, vehicles, and industries in urban areas leads to higher levels of pollution, including air, water, and soil pollution. Managing this pollution is a major challenge for urban planners.
Urban Heat Island Effect: The transformation of natural landscapes into built-up areas can lead to the urban heat island effect, where cities experience higher temperatures than surrounding rural areas due to the concentration of buildings, roads, and other infrastructure.

Social and Economic Changes:

Economic Growth: Urbanization is often associated with economic growth, as cities become centers of commerce, industry, and innovation. The concentration of resources and talent in urban areas can lead to increased productivity and economic development.
Social Integration: Cities are melting pots of different cultures, ideas, and social groups. Urbanization can lead to greater social integration and the exchange of ideas, but it can also result in challenges such as inequality, housing shortages, and the strain on public services.

Global Patterns of Urbanization:

Rapid Urbanization in Developing Countries: Many developing countries are experiencing rapid urbanization, with cities growing at unprecedented rates. This poses unique challenges in terms of infrastructure development, housing, and environmental sustainability.
Urbanization in Developed Countries: In contrast, urbanization in developed countries is often more gradual, with a focus on suburbanization and the expansion of existing urban areas. These patterns reflect different stages of economic development and urban planning practices.

8.2.5 Due to rural–urban migration, a greater proportion of the human population now live in urban rather than rural systems, and this proportion is increasing.

Define "rural–urban migration"
Explain rural-urban migration's significance in global population trends.
List three push factors and three pull factors that contribute to rural–urban migration.
Outline the primary advantages that urban settlements offer to migrants from rural areas.
Describe the differences between voluntary and forced rural–urban migration, providing examples of each.
Explain how rural–urban migration impacts both the urban and rural areas involved. Consider social, economic, and environmental aspects in your answer.

https://www.citiesalliance.org/resources/publications/cities-alliance-knowledge/how-secondary-cities-are-managing-rural-urban

Rural–urban migration refers to the movement of people from rural areas to urban centers. This migration has led to a significant shift in global demographics, with a greater proportion of the human population now living in urban areas rather than rural ones. The trend continues to grow, driven by various push and pull factors, and is primarily an internal migration within countries. While urbanization continues, some regions also experience deurbanization, where people move back to rural areas or smaller towns. Understanding the dynamics of rural–urban migration is essential for grasping the challenges and opportunities that arise from this demographic shift.

Rural–Urban Migration:

Push-Pull Factors

Voluntary vs. Forced Migration:

Voluntary Migration: Most rural–urban migration is voluntary, driven by the desire to improve living standards, access better services, or find employment.
Forced Migration: In some cases, migration may be forced due to conflict, natural disasters, or government policies that displace rural populations.

Advantages of Urban Settlements:

Economic Opportunities: Urban areas are hubs of economic activity, offering jobs in diverse sectors. The concentration of businesses and industries creates a dynamic economy with potential for growth.
Better Infrastructure and Services: Urban areas typically have better-developed infrastructure, including transportation networks, utilities, and social services, which can lead to improved living conditions.
Education and Healthcare: Access to higher-quality education and healthcare is often better in urban areas, attracting families seeking better opportunities for their children.
Cultural and Social Amenities: Cities offer a wide range of cultural, recreational, and social activities, enhancing the quality of life for residents.

Internal Migration:

Trend Within Countries: Most rural–urban migration occurs within a country’s borders, with people moving from rural areas to nearby cities or regional hubs. This internal migration is a significant contributor to urban growth and the expansion of cities.
Impact on Rural Areas: While urban areas grow, rural areas may experience depopulation, leading to a decline in agricultural productivity and challenges in maintaining local economies and services.

This cartogram shows how the distribution of rural populations compares in absolute and relative terms. The large, main map shows the countries of the world resized according to the total number of each’s rural population as of 2016. The varying green shades show the proportion of a country’s total population that live in a rural area

Deurbanization:

Deurbanization is the process of people moving out of urban areas, including suburbs, back into rural regions. This trend is driven by various push and pull factors, including dissatisfaction with urban life, the desire for a quieter, more natural environment, and the appeal of smaller, close-knit communities.
In some regions, particularly in developed countries, there is a trend of deurbanization, where people move from urban areas back to rural areas or smaller towns. This may be driven by factors such as:
- Desire for a Better Quality of Life: Some individuals and families seek the tranquility, lower cost of living, and closer connection to nature offered by rural areas.
- Remote Work Opportunities: Advances in technology and the rise of remote work have enabled some people to live in rural areas while still maintaining urban-based jobs.
- Overcrowding and High Costs: In highly urbanized areas, overcrowding, high housing costs, and urban stress can drive people to seek more spacious and affordable living conditions outside the city.
- Urban-Rural Balance: The trend of deurbanization highlights the importance of maintaining a balance between urban and rural areas, ensuring that both can thrive and support the population.

8.2.6 Suburbanization is due to the movement of people from dense central urban areas to lower- density peripheral areas.

Define "suburbanization"
Explain how suburbanization contributes to urban sprawl.
Outline the key social factors that drive the process of suburbanization.
Describe the relationship between suburbanization and the increased demand for infrastructure in peripheral urban areas.
Explain how suburbanization can lead to both increased energy consumption and higher levels of pollution. Use specific examples to support your answer.

Suburbanization refers to the migration of people from densely populated central urban areas to the lower-density peripheral areas surrounding cities. This trend results in the expansion of urban areas into previously undeveloped or rural lands, often leading to what is known as urban sprawl. Suburbanization is driven by various factors, including the desire for more space, improved living conditions, and a quieter environment, but it also brings significant environmental and social challenges due to the increased land use and resource demands of lower-density settlements.

Suburbanization

Migration to the Periphery: Suburbanization involves the movement of people from the crowded and often congested central urban areas to the outskirts of cities, where housing density is lower, and there is more space available for residential development.
Characteristics of Suburban Areas: Suburban areas are typically characterized by single-family homes, larger plots of land, and lower population density compared to urban centers. These areas often offer a more tranquil environment, appealing to families and individuals seeking a balance between urban amenities and a less hectic lifestyle.

Urban Sprawl:

Urban sprawl refers to the uncontrolled expansion of urban areas into surrounding rural land, leading to the spread of low-density, car-dependent development. This expansion often results in the inefficient use of land and resources.

8.2.7 The expansion of urban and suburban systems results in changes to the environment.

Explain how urban sprawl contributes to the loss of agricultural land.
List three environmental impacts of urban and suburban expansion on natural ecosystems.
Outline the ways in which the expansion of suburban areas can alter river flows and water quality.
Describe the relationship between urban expansion and the increase in air pollution.
Explain how the loss of forests due to suburbanization can affect local and global climate patterns.

The expansion of urban and suburban systems has significant impacts on the environment, leading to widespread changes that affect natural ecosystems, water resources, and air quality. As cities and suburbs grow, they consume more land, often at the expense of agricultural areas, forests, and other natural habitats. These changes disrupt local ecosystems, alter natural water cycles, and contribute to increased pollution, posing challenges for environmental sustainability and the health of human populations.

Loss of Agricultural Land:

Urban and Suburban Encroachment: As urban and suburban areas expand, they often spread into surrounding rural regions, leading to the conversion of agricultural land into residential, commercial, and industrial developments. This encroachment reduces the availability of farmland, which can have significant implications for local food production and food security.
Impact on Agriculture: The loss of agricultural land due to urban sprawl can lead to a decrease in local food production, forcing regions to rely more on imported food, which can increase costs and reduce food sovereignty. Additionally, the reduction in farmland may drive up the price of remaining agricultural land, making farming less economically viable.

Deforestation and Loss of Natural Ecosystems:

Clearing of Forests: The expansion of urban and suburban areas often involves the clearing of forests and other natural ecosystems to make way for new developments. This deforestation leads to the loss of biodiversity, as habitats for many species are destroyed.
Impact on Ecosystem Services: Forests and natural ecosystems provide essential services such as carbon sequestration, water filtration, and climate regulation. The loss of these ecosystems due to urban expansion can reduce these services, contributing to climate change and environmental degradation.

Changes to Water Quality and River Flows:

Alteration of Water Bodies: Urbanization and suburbanization can significantly alter natural water bodies, such as rivers, lakes, and wetlands. The construction of buildings, roads, and other infrastructure often involves the modification of natural watercourses, leading to changes in river flows and the disruption of aquatic ecosystems.
Water Pollution: As urban and suburban areas grow, they generate more pollutants, including sewage, industrial waste, and stormwater runoff. These pollutants can enter local water bodies, degrading water quality and harming aquatic life. Increased impervious surfaces, such as roads and parking lots, also reduce the natural infiltration of water into the soil, leading to more surface runoff and greater pollution.
Impact on Flooding: The alteration of river flows and the loss of natural floodplains due to urban development can increase the risk of flooding. Urban areas often experience more severe flooding because natural areas that would absorb excess water are replaced with impermeable surfaces.

Air Pollution:

Increased Emissions: The expansion of urban and suburban areas typically leads to higher levels of air pollution, as more vehicles on the road, industrial activities, and energy consumption contribute to emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs) and other pollutants such as nitrogen oxides (NOx) and particulate matter (PM).
Impact on Public Health: Poor air quality resulting from urban expansion can have serious health consequences for residents, including respiratory problems, cardiovascular diseases, and other health issues. Vulnerable populations, such as children and the elderly, are particularly at risk.
Contribution to Climate Change: The increase in GHG emissions associated with urban and suburban growth contributes to global climate change, leading to more frequent and severe weather events, rising temperatures, and shifting climate patterns.

Cumulative Environmental Impacts:

Fragmentation of Ecosystems: The expansion of urban and suburban areas often leads to the fragmentation of natural habitats, creating isolated patches of ecosystems that are less resilient and more vulnerable to environmental changes. This fragmentation can reduce biodiversity and disrupt ecological processes.
Urban Heat Island Effect: The concentration of buildings, roads, and other infrastructure in urban areas can lead to the urban heat island effect, where cities experience higher temperatures than surrounding rural areas. This effect can exacerbate the impacts of heatwaves and increase energy demand for cooling

8.2.8 Urban planning helps decide on the best way to use land and buildings.

Define "urban planning"
Explain the primary purpose of urban planning in the development of urban areas.
List three key objectives of urban planning that contribute to the overall wellbeing of a community.
Outline the role of urban planning in meeting the environmental needs of a community.
Describe how urban planning can address the housing needs of a growing population in a sustainable manner.
Explain how zoning laws are used in urban planning to separate residential, commercial, and industrial areas, and discuss the benefits of this approach

Urban planning is a crucial process that involves making decisions about the use of land and buildings within a community. The goal of urban planning is to create well-organized, functional, and sustainable environments that meet the diverse needs of all stakeholders, including residents, businesses, industries, and the environment. By carefully planning the use of land and buildings, urban planners aim to balance physical, domestic, environmental, commercial, industrial, financial, and health needs, ensuring that communities are livable, efficient, and resilient.

Urban Planning

Definition: Urban planning is the process by which governments, municipalities, and planning authorities make decisions about the development and use of land, infrastructure, and buildings within urban areas. It involves creating detailed plans and policies that guide the growth and development of cities and towns.
Purpose: The primary purpose of urban planning is to manage land use in a way that promotes sustainable development, enhances the quality of life for residents, and ensures the efficient functioning of the urban area.

Meeting Physical and Domestic Needs:

Housing: One of the key components of urban planning is ensuring that there is adequate housing to meet the needs of the population. This includes planning for a mix of housing types—such as single-family homes, apartments, and affordable housing—suitable for different income levels and family sizes.
Infrastructure: Urban planning involves the development of infrastructure, including roads, public transportation, water supply, sewage systems, and utilities. These physical structures are essential for supporting daily life and ensuring that residents have access to the services they need.
Public Spaces: Planning for parks, recreational areas, and green spaces is also a critical aspect of urban planning, providing residents with areas for leisure, exercise, and community activities.

Environmental Considerations:

Sustainability: Urban planning aims to minimize the environmental impact of development by promoting sustainable practices, such as the use of renewable energy, energy-efficient buildings, and the protection of natural habitats.
Green Infrastructure: Incorporating green infrastructure—such as parks, green roofs, urban forests, and wetlands—into urban plans helps improve air and water quality, reduce the urban heat island effect, and enhance biodiversity within cities.
Climate Resilience: Urban planning also focuses on building resilience to climate change by designing cities that can withstand extreme weather events, manage stormwater effectively, and reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

Commercial and Industrial Needs:

Zoning: Urban planning uses zoning laws to designate specific areas for commercial and industrial activities. Zoning ensures that businesses and industries are located in appropriate areas, minimizing conflicts with residential areas and reducing environmental impacts.
Economic Development: By strategically planning the location of commercial centers, industrial parks, and business districts, urban planning supports economic growth and job creation. Well-planned commercial areas can attract investment, boost local economies, and provide convenient access to goods and services for residents.
Transportation and Logistics: Planning for efficient transportation networks is essential for supporting commercial and industrial activities. Urban planners design roadways, public transit systems, and logistics hubs that facilitate the movement of goods and people, reducing traffic congestion and improving economic efficiency.

Financial and Health Needs:

Affordable Housing and Services: Urban planning seeks to provide affordable housing options and ensure that essential services—such as healthcare, education, and public safety—are accessible to all residents, regardless of income.
Health and Wellbeing: Urban planning plays a key role in promoting public health by designing communities that encourage active lifestyles, reduce pollution, and provide access to healthcare facilities. The placement of hospitals, clinics, and wellness centers is carefully considered to ensure that all residents can access medical care when needed.
Social Equity: A critical goal of urban planning is to promote social equity by ensuring that all community members, including marginalized and vulnerable populations, have access to the benefits of urban development. This includes fair distribution of resources, access to quality housing, and the provision of social services.

Stakeholder Involvement:

Community Engagement: Successful urban planning involves the participation of all stakeholders, including residents, businesses, local government, and environmental groups. Engaging the community in the planning process ensures that the needs and desires of all groups are considered and that the resulting plans reflect the values and priorities of the community.
Balancing Interests: Urban planners must balance the often competing interests of different stakeholders, such as the desire for economic growth versus the need to protect the environment, or the demand for new housing versus the preservation of historical sites. This requires careful negotiation and the ability to find compromises that benefit the community as a whole.

Case Study: Chandigarh – A Perfectly Planned City?

Chandigarh, located in northern India, is often hailed as one of the most well-planned cities in the country and a prime example of urban planning in the post-independence era. Designed by the famous Swiss-French architect Le Corbusier in the 1950s, Chandigarh was envisioned as a city that would embody modernity, efficiency, and aesthetic harmony. The city's design is marked by its orderly layout, wide roads, ample green spaces, and distinct zoning principles. However, despite these achievements, questions remain about whether Chandigarh can be considered a "perfect" city, especially in the context of modern urban challenges.

Master Plan and Zoning:

Grid Layout: Chandigarh’s layout is based on a grid pattern, divided into self-contained sectors, each measuring approximately 800 meters by 1200 meters. This grid ensures that all sectors are well-connected, with easy access to roads and amenities.
Zoning: The city is divided into specific zones for residential, commercial, and industrial activities, with a focus on separating these functions to reduce congestion and pollution. Each sector includes residential areas, schools, shopping centers, and parks, making them largely self-sufficient.
Capitol Complex: Chandigarh's Capitol Complex is a UNESCO World Heritage Site, featuring government buildings such as the High Court, Secretariat, and Legislative Assembly, designed by Le Corbusier to symbolize the aspirations of a newly independent India.

Green Spaces and Environmental Planning:

Parks and Gardens: Chandigarh is known for its abundant green spaces, including the famous Sukhna Lake, Rock Garden, and Rose Garden. These areas provide residents with recreational spaces and help maintain ecological balance
Tree-Lined Boulevards: The city’s roads are lined with trees, contributing to the aesthetic appeal of the city and improving air quality.
Sustainable Water Management: Chandigarh was designed with a system of lakes and open spaces to manage water drainage naturally, reducing the risk of flooding.

Transport Infrastructure:

Wide Roads: Chandigarh's wide roads and roundabouts are designed to reduce traffic congestion and improve the flow of vehicles. The city was planned with the future in mind, anticipating the growth of car ownership.
Public Transport: While the city was designed for easy car travel, public transportation has become a focus in recent years, with the introduction of bus services and plans for expanding public transit options to reduce reliance on private vehicles.

Architectural and Cultural Identity:

Modernist Architecture: Le Corbusier’s design emphasized modernist principles, with functional, minimalist buildings that reflect the ideals of simplicity and efficiency. The city's architecture is iconic, with many buildings showcasing exposed concrete and open spaces.\
Cultural Spaces: Chandigarh includes several cultural institutions, such as museums, theaters, and art galleries, which contribute to the city’s vibrant cultural life.

Sustainable Urban Planning

8.2.9 Modern urban planning may involve considering the sustainability of the urban system.

Define "sustainable urban planning"
List three key factors that sustainable urban planning must consider to enhance the quality of life in urban areas.
Outline the role of integrated public transport systems in achieving sustainable urban development.
Describe how green spaces contribute to the sustainability of urban environments.
Explain how the use of renewable resources in urban planning can reduce a city’s environmental impact.

Modern urban planning increasingly focuses on the sustainability of urban systems, aiming to create cities that are not only functional and livable but also environmentally responsible and resilient. Sustainable urban planning involves integrating various factors that contribute to the long-term health and wellbeing of both the community and the environment. These factors include the provision of quality and affordable housing, integrated public transport systems, green spaces, security, education and employment opportunities, renewable energy use, waste management, energy efficiency, and community involvement. Through thoughtful design and planning, cities can reduce their environmental impact while enhancing the quality of life for residents.

Goal 11 is about making cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable. Cities represent the future of global living.

For cities to operate efficiently and maintain economic productivity, they require well-functioning transportation systems, as well as reliable energy, water, and waste management infrastructure. The dense populations found in urban areas heighten their susceptibility to air and water pollution, along with soil contamination. However, sustainable cities tend to be more resilient against natural disasters like flooding and are often more energy-efficient and less wasteful compared to traditional urban models.

Urban planning must take into account the following factors to enhance sustainability in city design.

Quality and Affordable Housing:

Importance: Providing access to quality and affordable housing is a cornerstone of sustainable urban planning. Affordable housing ensures that all residents, regardless of income level, have a safe and comfortable place to live. Quality housing contributes to the health and wellbeing of residents, reducing the risk of overcrowding and homelessness.
Approaches: Sustainable housing developments often incorporate energy-efficient designs, the use of sustainable building materials, and the inclusion of green spaces within residential areas. Examples include mixed-income housing projects and the promotion of compact, walkable neighborhoods.

https://urbancyclinginstitute.org/synergies-from-improved-cycling-transit-integration-towards-an-integrated-urban-mobility-system/

Integrated Public Transport Systems:

Importance: Integrated public transport systems reduce reliance on private vehicles, decreasing traffic congestion, air pollution, and greenhouse gas emissions. Efficient public transport networks also improve accessibility, allowing residents to travel easily to work, school, and other essential services.
Approaches: Sustainable urban planning emphasizes the development of comprehensive public transport systems that include buses, trains, trams, and bicycle lanes, all interconnected to provide seamless mobility. Examples include the extensive metro systems in cities like Tokyo and London, and the promotion of cycling in cities like Amsterdam and Copenhagen.

Green Spaces:

Importance: Green spaces, such as parks, gardens, and urban forests, play a vital role in enhancing the quality of life in cities. They provide areas for recreation, improve air quality, reduce urban heat island effects, and support biodiversity.
Approaches: Urban planners incorporate green spaces into city designs, ensuring that they are accessible to all residents. The creation of green belts, rooftop gardens, and the preservation of natural landscapes within urban areas are examples of this approach.

Security, Education, and Employment:

Security: Safe urban environments are essential for the wellbeing of residents. Urban planning for security involves designing neighborhoods that reduce crime through well-lit streets, public surveillance, and community policing.
Education: Access to quality education is a critical component of sustainable urban development. Planners ensure that schools and educational facilities are well-distributed across the city and are accessible to all residents.
Employment: Sustainable urban planning supports the creation of job opportunities through the strategic placement of commercial and industrial areas, as well as the promotion of local businesses and innovation hubs.

Use of Renewable Resources:

Importance: The use of renewable resources, such as solar, wind, and geothermal energy, reduces the environmental impact of cities and helps combat climate change. Renewable energy is a key component of sustainable urban systems.
Approaches: Urban planners integrate renewable energy sources into city infrastructure, such as installing solar panels on buildings, developing wind farms, and promoting the use of electric vehicles (EVs) powered by clean energy.

Reuse and Recycling of Waste:

Importance: Effective waste management, including the reuse and recycling of materials, is crucial for reducing the environmental footprint of urban areas. Sustainable waste management practices help conserve resources, reduce landfill use, and minimize pollution.
Approaches: Cities implement recycling programs, encourage composting, and develop waste-to-energy plants. The promotion of a circular economy, where materials are reused and recycled within the urban system, is also a key strategy.

https://www.aceee.org/blog/2019/11/grid-interactive-efficient-buildings

Energy Efficiency:

Importance: Energy efficiency reduces the overall energy consumption of a city, leading to lower emissions and reduced costs. This is particularly important in buildings, which are significant consumers of energy.
Approaches: Sustainable urban planning promotes the construction of energy-efficient buildings, the retrofitting of older buildings with modern insulation and energy-saving technologies, and the development of smart grids that optimize energy use.

Involvement of the Community:

Importance: Community involvement in urban planning ensures that the needs and desires of residents are considered, leading to more equitable and effective outcomes. It also fosters a sense of ownership and responsibility for the local environment.
Approaches: Planners engage with the community through public consultations, participatory planning processes, and collaborative decision-making. This involvement helps create urban spaces that reflect the values and priorities of the people who live there.

https://motomo.co.id/10-building-advantages-applying-green-building-concept/

Green Buildings:

Importance: Green buildings are designed to minimize environmental impact through energy efficiency, sustainable materials, and reduced waste. These buildings contribute to the overall sustainability of the urban system.
Approaches: The adoption of green building standards, such as LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) or BREEAM (Building Research Establishment Environmental Assessment Method), encourages the construction of environmentally friendly buildings. Features like green roofs, rainwater harvesting, and natural ventilation are commonly integrated into these designs.

Example of Sustainable Urban Planning:

The Cerdà Plan in Barcelona, Spain (1860):

Overview: The Cerdà Plan, developed by Ildefons Cerdà in 1860, was a visionary urban design for the expansion of Barcelona, known as the "Eixample." The plan was designed to accommodate the city’s growing population, improve living conditions, and enhance mobility.
Sustainable Features:
- Grid Layout: The plan introduced a grid layout with wide streets and uniform blocks, designed to optimize air circulation, sunlight, and traffic flow.
- Green Spaces: Each block was intended to include a central courtyard or garden, providing residents with green space and promoting a healthier living environment.
- Mixed-Use Development: The plan encouraged mixed-use development, combining residential, commercial, and industrial spaces within the same area, reducing the need for long commutes and fostering vibrant, self-sufficient neighborhoods.
- Impact: The Cerdà Plan laid the foundation for modern urban planning in Barcelona, balancing density with open spaces and improving the overall quality of life.

https://blogs.loc.gov/maps/2023/05/exploring-haussmannian-paris/

The Hausmann Plan for Paris (1850s):

Overview: Baron Georges-Eugène Haussmann was tasked by Napoleon III to redesign Paris in the 1850s, transforming it into a modern city with wide boulevards, parks, and improved infrastructure.
Sustainable Features:
- Wide Boulevards: Haussmann’s plan included the creation of wide, tree-lined boulevards that improved air circulation, reduced overcrowding, and provided space for pedestrians, horse-drawn carriages, and later, vehicles.
- Green Spaces: The plan introduced several large parks and public gardens, such as the Bois de Boulogne and Parc des Buttes-Chaumont, offering recreational spaces and improving the city’s air quality.
- Sanitation and Infrastructure: Haussmann significantly improved Paris’s sanitation system, including the construction of new sewers and water supply networks, which greatly enhanced public health.
- Impact: The Haussmann Plan modernized Paris, making it more functional, healthier, and aesthetically pleasing, and it became a model for urban renewal in other cities.

https://www.architecturaldigest.com/story/60-years-ago-modernist-city-brasilia-built

Brasilia, Brazil (1960):

Overview: Designed by architect Oscar Niemeyer and urban planner Lúcio Costa, Brasilia was built in the 1960s as Brazil's new capital. The city was designed to be a modernist utopia with an emphasis on functionality and aesthetics.

Sustainable Features:

Planned Urban Layout: Brasilia’s layout resembles the shape of an airplane, with distinct zones for government buildings, residential areas, and commercial sectors, promoting efficient land use.
Green Spaces: The city incorporates large green spaces and parks, helping to balance the urban environment with natural areas.
Public Transportation: Brasilia was designed with broad avenues and a focus on public transportation, including bus rapid transit systems, reducing reliance on private cars.
Impact: While Brasilia has faced challenges, its design has influenced urban planning worldwide, particularly in the emphasis on zoning, green spaces, and modernist architecture.

Forest City, Malaysia (Controversial):

Overview: Forest City is a planned smart city in Malaysia, designed to be a green, sustainable urban area built on reclaimed land. The city is intended to incorporate cutting-edge technology and sustainable practices.
Sustainable Features:
- Green Architecture: Buildings in Forest City are designed with vertical greenery and green roofs, aiming to create a city where nature and urban life coexist harmoniously.
- Smart City Technology: The city plans to use smart technology for energy management, waste management, and transportation, optimizing resource use and reducing environmental impact.
- Mixed Reactions: While Forest City is ambitious in its sustainability goals, it has faced controversy, particularly concerning environmental impacts, land reclamation issues, and social concerns.
- Impact: Forest City highlights the challenges and complexities of implementing large-scale sustainable urban projects, especially in balancing development with environmental and social concerns.

https://talldanestale.dk/2017/12/09/dreaming-of-a-car-free-copenhagen/

Reduction or Removal of Car Use in Copenhagen, Denmark:

Overview: Copenhagen has long been a leader in sustainable urban planning, particularly in its efforts to reduce car use and promote cycling and public transportation.

Sustainable Features:

Cycling Infrastructure: The city has an extensive network of cycling lanes, bike bridges, and bike-sharing programs, making cycling a primary mode of transport for many residents.
Car-Free Zones: Parts of Copenhagen, particularly in the city center, are designated as car-free zones, reducing traffic congestion and air pollution.
Public Transportation: Copenhagen’s public transportation system is well-integrated, with buses, trains, and metro systems providing efficient and accessible options for residents.
Impact: Copenhagen’s focus on reducing car use has led to a more livable, environmentally friendly city, serving as a model for sustainable urban transport worldwide.

https://www.cbsnews.com/sanfrancisco/news/san-francisco-ev-charging-stations-ordinance/

EV Charging Stations in San Francisco, USA:

Overview: San Francisco has been at the forefront of promoting electric vehicle (EV) use as part of its broader strategy to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and combat climate change.
Sustainable Features:
- Widespread EV Infrastructure: The city has invested heavily in building a comprehensive network of EV charging stations, making it easier for residents and visitors to charge their electric vehicles.
- Incentives for EV Use: San Francisco offers incentives for residents to purchase and use electric vehicles, such as tax credits, rebates, and preferential parking.
- Integration with Renewable Energy: Many of the city’s EV charging stations are powered by renewable energy sources, further reducing the carbon footprint of transportation.
- Impact: San Francisco’s commitment to EV infrastructure has made it a leader in sustainable urban transport, encouraging the adoption of cleaner technologies and reducing reliance on fossil fuels.

https://www.businessinsider.com/dubai-sustainable-city-uae-2018-1

Water Conservation in Dubai: Green Spaces Irrigated with Grey Water:

Overview: Dubai, located in a desert environment, faces significant challenges related to water scarcity. The city has implemented innovative water conservation strategies, including the use of grey water to irrigate green spaces.

Sustainable Features:

Grey Water Recycling: Dubai has developed systems to treat and reuse grey water (wastewater from sinks, showers, etc.) for irrigating parks, gardens, and other green spaces, reducing the demand for freshwater.
Efficient Irrigation: The city uses advanced irrigation techniques, such as drip irrigation, to minimize water waste and ensure that plants receive the necessary moisture without overuse.
Public Awareness: Dubai’s government also promotes water conservation through public awareness campaigns and regulations, encouraging residents and businesses to use water more efficiently.
Impact: Dubai’s innovative approach to water conservation has helped the city maintain green spaces despite its arid climate, serving as a model for other cities facing similar challenges.

Application of skills: Investigate maps that show the urban development of a city over time.

Projected Atlanta urban land cover growth from the Prescott College Growth Model (follow Estes et al. 2003).

Gilbert, Arizona 2013

Gilbert, Arizona 2019

8.2.10 Ecological urban planning is a more holistic approach that treats the urban system as an ecosystem, understanding the complex relationships between its biotic and abiotic components.

Define "Regenerative architecture"
List three components of urban ecology that contribute to the sustainability of urban environments.
Outline the benefits and challenges of implementing urban farming in densely populated cities.
Describe how biophilic design can improve the quality of life for urban residents.
Explain how resilience planning can help cities adapt to the challenges of climate change. Provide examples to support your answer.

Ecological urban planning is a holistic approach to city planning that views the urban environment as a complex ecosystem, integrating the relationships between biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) components. This approach recognizes that urban areas are not separate from nature but are part of a broader ecological system. By understanding and enhancing these relationships, ecological urban planning aims to create cities that are sustainable, resilient, and harmonious with the natural environment. This planning approach includes strategies like creating green spaces, promoting urban farming, incorporating biophilic design, planning for resilience, and employing regenerative architecture.

The Doughnut Economics For Urban Planning

https://phys.org/news/2023-08-sustainable-mobility-doughnut.html#google_vignette

In the context of urban planning, Doughnut Economics offers a holistic approach to designing cities that meet the needs of their populations while staying within the ecological limits of the planet. This model encourages urban planners to:

Meet Social Needs: Ensure that all residents have access to essential services like housing, healthcare, education, and employment opportunities, fostering social equity and inclusion.
Stay Within Ecological Limits: Design cities that reduce environmental impacts by minimizing resource use, reducing waste and emissions, and protecting natural ecosystems. This involves using renewable energy, promoting sustainable transportation, managing water and waste efficiently, and integrating green spaces.
Promote Regenerative Practices: Move beyond sustainability by incorporating regenerative practices that restore and enhance the environment, such as rewilding urban areas, using buildings to clean the air, and developing infrastructure that supports biodiversity.
Engage Communities: Involve local communities in the planning process to ensure that urban development reflects the needs and values of residents, fostering a sense of ownership and responsibility for the city's sustainability.

Example:

A city applying Doughnut Economics principles might focus on reducing its carbon footprint by promoting public transportation and renewable energy, while also ensuring that all residents have access to affordable housing and healthcare. The city might integrate extensive green spaces to improve air quality and biodiversity, while also implementing policies to ensure that economic activities do not exceed ecological thresholds, such as by limiting industrial pollution or encouraging circular economy practices

https://www.resilience.org/stories/2023-10-10/doughnut-whats-enough-or-too-much/

Ecological Urban Planning: Biophilic Design in Singapore

https://geology.com/world/singapore-satellite-image.shtml

https://www.biophiliccities.org/singapore

Overview:

Singapore has become a global leader in biophilic design, integrating nature into its urban landscape in innovative and impactful ways. The city-state's approach to urban planning prioritizes greenery and natural elements, making nature an integral part of urban life.

Key Features:

Green Roofs and Vertical Gardens:
- Many of Singapore’s buildings feature extensive green roofs and vertical gardens, which contribute to the city’s reputation as a "City in a Garden." These green features not only improve air quality but also provide insulation, reduce the urban heat island effect, and create habitats for wildlife.
Gardens by the Bay:
- One of Singapore’s most iconic biophilic projects, Gardens by the Bay, is a 101-hectare park with futuristic Supertrees, which are vertical gardens that generate solar power, collect rainwater, and cool the park. The park is a prime example of how urban spaces can be designed to be both functional and ecologically rich.
Natural Light and Ventilation:
- Singapore’s urban planning also emphasizes maximizing natural light and ventilation in buildings, reducing the need for artificial lighting and air conditioning, and creating healthier indoor environments.

Impact:

Singapore’s commitment to biophilic design has resulted in a city that not only looks and feels more connected to nature but also supports the wellbeing of its residents and contributes to environmental sustainability. The city’s approach to integrating greenery into the urban environment serves as a model for other cities around the world seeking to enhance their ecological resilience and livability.

HL only

This HL unit is a minimum of 5 hours.

8.2.11 Ecological urban planning will follow principles of urban compactness, mixed land use and
social mix practice.

Define "mixed land use"
Discuss the us of mixed land use impact on public transportation in urban areas.
List four key principles of ecological urban planning and briefly describe how each contributes to urban sustainability.
Outline the challenges and benefits of implementing social mix practices in urban planning.
Describe the relationship between urban compactness and energy efficiency in cities. Discuss how this relationship contributes to sustainability.
Explain how ecological urban planning can address both environmental and social inequalities in cities.

Ecological urban planning emphasizes the creation of cities that are not only environmentally sustainable but also socially equitable. Key principles of this approach include urban compactness, mixed land use, and social mix practices. These principles work together to create urban environments that reduce environmental impact, enhance accessibility, and promote social justice. By adopting these practices, cities can address issues such as urban sprawl, car dependency, and energy consumption, while also improving public transport, accessibility, and social equity. Ensuring equitable access to green spaces is particularly important in achieving environmental justice.

Urban Compactness:

Definition: Urban compactness refers to the development of cities in a dense, efficient manner that minimizes land use and prevents urban sprawl. Compact cities are characterized by high-density housing, well-organized infrastructure, and proximity of amenities.
Sustainable Advantages:
- Reduced Urban Sprawl: By concentrating development within a defined area, urban compactness helps to protect surrounding natural landscapes and agricultural land from being converted into urban areas.
- Less Car Dependency: Compact cities make it easier for residents to walk or cycle to work, school, or shops, reducing the need for private car use and lowering emissions.
- Efficient Energy Use: Higher density living reduces energy consumption for heating, cooling, and transportation, contributing to overall energy efficiency.

Mixed Land Use:

Definition: Mixed land use involves designing urban areas where residential, commercial, industrial, and recreational spaces are integrated rather than segregated. This approach creates vibrant, diverse neighborhoods where people can live, work, and play within the same area.
Sustainable Advantages:
- Better Public Transport: Mixed land use supports the development of efficient public transportation networks, as higher population densities and the proximity of different land uses generate sufficient demand for public transit services.
- Increased Accessibility: With essential services, workplaces, and recreational areas located close together, residents have greater access to amenities without the need for long commutes.
- Vibrant Communities: Mixed land use fosters vibrant communities with active streetscapes, encouraging social interaction and community engagement.

Social Mix Practice:

Definition: Social mix practice aims to create socially inclusive neighborhoods by encouraging a diverse mix of housing types, tenures, and income levels within the same area. This approach helps prevent the segregation of different social groups and promotes social cohesion.
Sustainable Advantages:
- Social Equality: By ensuring that people of different income levels and backgrounds live in the same areas, social mix practices reduce social inequality and promote a more equitable distribution of resources and opportunities.
- Accessibility to Green Spaces: Equitable access to green spaces is a crucial element of environmental justice. Social mix practices help ensure that all residents, regardless of income, have access to parks, gardens, and recreational areas.
- Resilient Communities: Diverse communities are often more resilient to economic and social changes, as they benefit from a wider range of perspectives, skills, and resources.

Environmental Justice:

Definition: Environmental justice refers to the fair distribution of environmental benefits and burdens across all social groups, ensuring that no community is disproportionately affected by environmental hazards or denied access to environmental benefits.
Importance in Ecological Urban Planning:
- Equitable Access to Green Spaces: Ensuring that all residents have access to green spaces, regardless of their socioeconomic status, is a key aspect of environmental justice. Green spaces contribute to physical and mental wellbeing, and their availability should not be limited to wealthier areas.
- Reducing Inequality: Environmental justice in urban planning involves designing cities that do not exacerbate existing inequalities. This includes ensuring that low-income neighborhoods are not disproportionately exposed to pollution, poor infrastructure, or lack of services.

Sustainable Advantages of Ecological Urban Planning:

Reduced Urban Sprawl: By promoting compact, mixed-use development, ecological urban planning minimizes the spread of cities into surrounding natural areas, preserving ecosystems and reducing infrastructure costs.
Less Car Dependency: Dense, mixed-use neighborhoods reduce the need for car travel, leading to lower greenhouse gas emissions, reduced air pollution, and improved public health.
Reduced Energy Consumption: Compact, energy-efficient buildings and neighborhoods reduce overall energy demand, contributing to climate change mitigation.
Better Public Transport: Higher density and mixed land use support the development of efficient and accessible public transportation networks, reducing reliance on private vehicles.
Increased Accessibility: Mixed-use development and social mix practices enhance accessibility to services, jobs, and recreational opportunities, creating more equitable and inclusive urban environments.
Social Equality and Environmental Justice: Ensuring that all residents have access to green spaces and are not disproportionately burdened by environmental hazards is crucial for achieving environmental justice in urban areas.

Case Study 15 Minute City - Paris, France

The 15-minute city is an urban planning concept that aims to create cities where residents can access most of their daily needs—such as work, education, healthcare, shopping, and recreation—within a 15-minute walk or bike ride from their homes. This concept promotes sustainability, improves quality of life, and reduces reliance on cars by fostering compact, mixed-use neighborhoods. The 15-minute city is rooted in the principles of urban compactness, mixed land use, and social mix practices, making it a prime example of ecological urban planning.

Background:

Paris, under the leadership of Mayor Anne Hidalgo, has become a leading example of the 15-minute city concept. Hidalgo’s vision for Paris is to transform it into a city of "proximity," where residents have easy access to essential services and amenities within a short walk or bike ride. This approach aligns with her broader goals of reducing car use, cutting carbon emissions, and improving the quality of life for Parisians.

Key Features:

Urban Compactness:
- Dense, Walkable Neighborhoods: Paris already has a relatively high population density, making it well-suited for the 15-minute city model. The city is being further developed to ensure that each neighborhood has a mix of housing, shops, schools, healthcare facilities, and recreational areas within close proximity.
Mixed Land Use:
- Integration of Services: In the 15-minute city model, Paris is integrating residential, commercial, and recreational spaces within neighborhoods. For instance, schools are located near residential areas, and shops and markets are interspersed throughout communities, reducing the need for long commutes.
Social Mix Practices:
- Equitable Access: The city is working to ensure that all neighborhoods, including those traditionally underserved, have access to the same level of services and amenities. This includes improving public spaces, adding green areas, and ensuring affordable housing options are available throughout the city.
Sustainable Transportation:
- Biking and Walking Infrastructure: Paris has significantly expanded its cycling infrastructure, including the creation of dedicated bike lanes and the expansion of bike-sharing programs. Pedestrian-friendly streets and car-free zones have also been introduced to encourage walking and reduce vehicle use.
- Public Transit Integration: While the focus is on walking and cycling, public transportation remains an essential component, with improved access and connectivity within neighborhoods to ensure that residents can easily reach destinations beyond their immediate vicinity.
Green Spaces and Environmental Justice:
- Urban Green Spaces: Paris is increasing the number of green spaces within the city, ensuring that all residents have access to parks, gardens, and other recreational areas. This focus on green spaces helps combat urban heat, improve air quality, and provide residents with areas for relaxation and social interaction.

Impact and Challenges:

The 15-minute city model has the potential to significantly enhance urban sustainability by reducing carbon emissions, improving public health, and fostering stronger communities. In Paris, the implementation of this model has already led to a decrease in car use, increased use of public and active transportation, and greater satisfaction among residents with their quality of life.
However, the model also faces challenges, including the need to retrofit existing infrastructure, manage the economic implications for businesses reliant on car traffic, and ensure that all residents benefit equally from the changes. Moreover, achieving true equity in access to amenities requires ongoing efforts to address historical inequalities in urban development.

8.2.12 Societies are developing systems that address urban sustainability by using models such as a
circular economy or doughnut economics to promote sustainability within the urban system.

Explain its relevance to sustainable urban development.
List four key principles of doughnut economics and briefly describe how each principle can be applied to urban planning.
Outline the main benefits of adopting the doughnut economics model in urban planning.
Describe how the circular economy model can reduce waste and optimize resource use in urban systems.
Explain how the integration of social equity and environmental sustainability in the doughnut economics model can contribute to long-term urban resilience
Discuss the challenges and opportunities of implementing circular economy principles in existing urban infrastructure. How can cities overcome these challenges to achieve sustainability?

As urban areas continue to expand, there is an increasing need to develop systems that promote sustainability and ensure that cities can thrive within the limits of our planet's resources. Two key models that societies are adopting to address urban sustainability are the circular economy and doughnut economics. These models provide frameworks for cities to minimize waste, optimize resource use, and balance human well-being with ecological boundaries. By integrating these approaches into urban development, cities can create resilient and sustainable environments that support both current and future generations.

Cities applying the doughnut economics model aim to create a "safe and just space" for residents, where everyone’s basic needs are met without exceeding the planet's ecological limits. This involves integrating social equity, environmental sustainability, and economic resilience into urban planning and development.

Case Study - Doughnut Economics in Urban Development – Charlotte, North Carolina, USA

Background:
Charlotte, North Carolina, is a rapidly growing city in the southeastern United States, known for its booming finance industry, diverse population, and expanding urban footprint. As Charlotte continues to grow, city planners and local leaders have begun to explore the Doughnut Economics model as a framework for sustainable urban development. This approach aims to balance economic growth with social equity and environmental sustainability, ensuring that the city’s development remains within planetary boundaries while meeting the needs of all its residents.

Key Features of Charlotte’s Approach:

Circular Economy Initiatives:
- Waste Reduction and Resource Efficiency: Charlotte has initiated programs aimed at reducing waste and promoting the circular economy. The city has enhanced its recycling programs and is exploring ways to reduce construction waste through the reuse and recycling of building materials. Efforts to reduce single-use plastics and encourage composting are also part of the city’s broader waste reduction strategy.
- Sustainable Business Practices: Charlotte is supporting local businesses in adopting circular economy principles. Initiatives include promoting zero-waste practices in the hospitality industry, encouraging the repair and reuse of goods, and fostering innovation in sustainable manufacturing.
Social and Environmental Equity:
- Affordable Housing Initiatives: With the rapid growth of Charlotte’s population, affordable housing has become a critical issue. The city is incorporating social equity into its urban planning by expanding affordable housing options in both new developments and existing neighborhoods. This effort includes incentives for developers to build affordable units and the preservation of existing affordable housing stock.
- Access to Green Spaces: Charlotte is committed to ensuring that all residents, regardless of income, have access to green spaces. The city is developing new parks and greenways, particularly in underserved neighborhoods, to promote environmental justice and improve the quality of life for all residents.
Climate Action and Energy Transition:
- Carbon Neutrality Goals: Charlotte has set a goal to become a low-carbon city by 2050, with interim targets aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emissions. The city is investing in renewable energy projects, including solar farms and energy efficiency upgrades for public buildings, to reduce its carbon footprint.
- Sustainable Transportation: Charlotte is expanding its public transportation network, including the LYNX light rail system, to reduce car dependency and lower emissions. The city is also promoting the use of electric vehicles (EVs) by increasing the number of EV charging stations and offering incentives for residents to switch to electric cars.
Community Involvement and Innovation:
- Participatory Planning Processes: Charlotte emphasizes community engagement in its urban planning efforts. Through public forums, workshops, and online platforms, residents are encouraged to participate in shaping the city’s future, ensuring that development plans reflect the needs and aspirations of the community.
- Green Building and Smart Growth: Charlotte is adopting green building standards, such as LEED certification, for new construction projects. The city is also promoting smart growth principles, which include mixed-use development, walkable neighborhoods, and the preservation of natural areas within the urban landscape.

Impact and Future Prospects:

Charlotte’s exploration of the Doughnut Economics model is driving a shift towards more sustainable and equitable urban development. By focusing on circular economy principles, the city is working to reduce waste and optimize resource use, which is essential for managing its rapid growth sustainably. The emphasis on social equity, particularly in housing and access to green spaces, ensures that all residents benefit from the city’s development, addressing historical inequalities. Additionally, Charlotte’s climate action initiatives are positioning the city as a leader in the Southeast for sustainability and resilience in the face of climate change.

Challenges:
While Charlotte has made significant strides, it also faces challenges in fully implementing the Doughnut Economics model. Rapid population growth puts pressure on infrastructure and resources, making it difficult to maintain affordability and accessibility for all residents. Additionally, balancing economic development with environmental sustainability requires continuous innovation and collaboration across sectors.

8.2.13 Green architecture minimizes harmful effects of construction projects on human health and the environment, and aims to safeguard air, water and earth by choosing environmentally friendly building materials and construction practices.

Define "green architecture"
List four examples of bio-based materials used in green architecture and briefly describe their environmental benefits.
Outline the principles of circular construction and explain how they contribute to reducing the material footprint of buildings.
Describe how indigenous knowledge systems can be integrated into modern green architecture.
Explain how new technologies, such as 3D printing, are transforming green architecture.
Discuss the role of vernacular architecture in promoting environmental sustainability. Compare its effectiveness with modern green building practices.
Evaluate the potential of 3D printed houses as a solution for affordable and sustainable housing.

Green architecture is a sustainable approach to building design and construction that minimizes environmental impact and promotes human health. By integrating environmentally friendly materials, traditional knowledge systems, and innovative technologies, green architecture seeks to create buildings that are not only efficient and sustainable but also responsive to local cultures and climates. This approach involves using bio-based materials, circular construction principles, and new technologies, all while drawing on indigenous knowledge and vernacular architecture to create resilient and sustainable urban environments.

Bio-Based Materials:

Renewable Resources: Bio-based materials are derived from renewable natural substances such as wood, bamboo, adobe, and straw. These materials are sustainable because they are renewable, biodegradable, and have a lower environmental impact compared to traditional construction materials like concrete and steel.
Straw Bale Construction: One example of bio-based materials in use is straw bale construction, where tightly packed straw bales are used as insulating bricks for walls. These bales are then sealed with clay and lime plaster, creating an energy-efficient, naturally insulated building that is both sustainable and cost-effective.
Wood in High-Rise Buildings: Another innovative use of bio-based materials is the incorporation of wood in skyscrapers. By using engineered timber, such as cross-laminated timber (CLT), instead of steel and concrete, architects can significantly reduce the carbon footprint of tall buildings while also promoting the use of renewable materials.

https://africanclimatereporter.com/2017/10/05/climate-change-building-plastic-bottle-house-to-promote-environmental-protection-in-africa/

Circular Construction:

Design for Reuse and Recycling: Circular construction involves designing buildings so that materials can be easily reused or recycled at the end of their life cycle. This approach reduces the material footprint and waste generated by construction, contributing to a more sustainable built environment.

Plastic Bottle Construction: An example of circular construction is the use of discarded plastic bottles filled with sand as building blocks. This method not only repurposes waste materials but also provides a low-cost, durable solution for building in resource-limited areas.
Recycling and Reusing Waste Materials: Circular construction can also involve reusing materials from other industries, such as using recycled metal, glass, or reclaimed wood in building projects. This practice extends the life of materials and reduces the need for new resource extraction.

New Technologies:

Innovative Design for Energy Efficiency:: The Bahrain World Trade Center 1 and 2 exemplifies the integration of new technologies in green architecture. As one of the first skyscrapers to incorporate large-scale wind turbines, the twin towers harness sea breezes from the Persian Gulf to generate energy. The aerodynamically designed towers funnel wind towards the turbines, reducing reliance on non-renewable energy and promoting sustainability. This innovative approach highlights how modern technology can enhance energy efficiency and environmental sustainability in urban development.
3D Printing in Construction: New technologies like 3D printing are revolutionizing the construction industry by improving efficiency and reducing waste. Large 3D printers can layer materials such as concrete or bio-based substances to create building structures quickly and cost-effectively. This method is customizable, allowing for the precise design of complex forms with minimal waste.
Renewable Energy Integration: Modern green architecture often incorporates technologies like heat pumps and solar panels to reduce reliance on fossil fuels and lower carbon dioxide emissions. These technologies help create buildings that are not only energy-efficient but also capable of generating their own clean energy.
Advanced Insulation and Smart Systems: Other innovations include advanced insulation materials that reduce energy loss and smart building systems that optimize energy use, water consumption, and indoor air quality.

https://www.solidearth.co.nz/earthbuilding-information/building-with-adobe-brick-technique/

Indigenous Knowledge Systems:

Traditional Methods and Materials: Indigenous knowledge systems involve the use of traditional building methods and materials that have been developed over centuries by local cultures. These methods are often finely tuned to the local environment, making them inherently sustainable.
Stilt Houses in Tropical Climates: For example, wooden stilt houses in wet tropical climates are designed to prevent flooding, improve ventilation, and provide shade. These structures demonstrate how indigenous knowledge can offer practical, sustainable solutions to environmental challenges.
Adaptation to Local Conditions: Indigenous building practices often reflect a deep understanding of local climate and natural resources, ensuring that buildings are both functional and sustainable within their specific context.

Vernacular Architecture:

Barajeel (Arabic Wind Towers): An example of vernacular architecture is the barajeel, or Arabic wind towers, used in desert homes. These towers capture and direct wind into the building, providing natural cooling without the need for mechanical air conditioning. This design is both energy-efficient and responsive to the harsh desert climate.
Design for Local Cultures and Climates: Vernacular architecture refers to building designs that are closely aligned with local cultures and climatic conditions. These buildings often use locally sourced materials and traditional construction techniques that are well-suited to the environment.
Cultural and Environmental Harmony: Vernacular architecture exemplifies how buildings can be designed to harmonize with both the cultural practices and the environmental conditions of a region, leading to sustainable and resilient urban spaces.

Example of Green Architecture: 3D Printed Houses

Background:

One of the most cutting-edge examples of green architecture is the use of 3D printing technology to construct homes. This innovative method combines sustainability, efficiency, and customization, offering a glimpse into the future of construction. The technology has been applied in various contexts, from affordable housing projects in developing countries to experimental sustainable living environments.

Key Features of 3D Printed Houses:

Efficient Use of Materials:
- Precision and Minimal Waste: 3D printing allows for the precise application of building materials, which significantly reduces waste compared to traditional construction methods. Materials such as concrete, recycled plastics, and bio-based composites can be layered to create strong, durable structures with minimal resource use.
- Customization: The technology enables the creation of complex, customized designs that can be tailored to specific needs and environmental conditions. This flexibility allows for the construction of homes that are optimized for energy efficiency and occupant comfort.
Rapid and Low-Cost Construction:
- Speed of Construction: 3D printing can dramatically reduce the time required to build a house, with entire structures being completed in just a few days. This speed is particularly beneficial in emergency housing situations or in areas with urgent housing needs.
- Affordability: The reduction in labor and material costs associated with 3D printing makes this technology a promising solution for affordable housing. By lowering the overall cost of construction, 3D printed homes can make sustainable living accessible to more people.
Integration with Renewable Technologies:
- Solar Panels and Energy-Efficient Design: Many 3D printed homes are designed with energy efficiency in mind, incorporating features like solar panels, high-performance insulation, and passive heating and cooling systems. These features reduce the home’s energy consumption and environmental impact.
- Water and Waste Management: Some designs also integrate sustainable water and waste management systems, such as greywater recycling and composting toilets, further enhancing the sustainability of these homes.

Impact and Future Prospects:

3D printing technology has the potential to revolutionize the construction industry by making sustainable, affordable housing widely available. Its ability to reduce waste, lower costs, and speed up construction makes it an attractive option for addressing housing shortages and building resilient communities. As the technology continues to evolve, it is likely to play a key role in the future of green architecture, particularly in areas where traditional construction methods are less feasible or more resource-intensive.

Key Terms

Urban Area
Urbanization
Sustainable urban development
Land use planning
Zoning

HL ONLY

Megacities
Urban heat island effect
Transit-oriented development (TOD)
Mixed-use development
Gentrification
Urban regeneration
Circular economy in urban planning
Low-impact development (LID)
Social equity in urban planning
Environmental justice in cities
Climate adaptation strategies
Urban metabolism

Smart cities
Urban sprawl
Green spaces
Transportation systems
Waste management

Urban resilience
Eco-cities
Governance
Urban design
Energy-efficient

Urban infrastructure
Public transportation
Urban density
Urban growth boundaries
Sustainable cities

Classroom Materials

Subtopic 8.2 Urban System and Planning Presentation.pptx
File Size:	8296 kb
File Type:	pptx

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Subtopic 8.2 Urban Systems and Planning Workbook.docx
File Size:	1479 kb
File Type:	docx

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Correct use of terminology is a key skill in ESS. It is essential to use key terms correctly when communicating your understanding, particularly in assessments. Use the quizlet flashcards or other tools such as learn, scatter, space race, speller and test to help you master the vocabulary.

Useful Links

National Geographic: Urban Ecology
UN Sustainable Development Goal 11
Ellen MacArthur Foundation
LEED Certification
ArchDaily: Green Architecture
World Green Building Council
Resilient Cities Network
100 Resilient Cities
UNESCO: Indigenous Knowledge and Architecture
Traditional Building
Urban Footprint

In The News

International-mindness:

"Understanding urban systems and planning requires recognizing the diverse cultural, social, and economic contexts that shape cities around the world. By examining global case studies, students develop a deeper appreciation of how different societies address common urban challenges, fostering a mindset that values sustainable solutions adaptable to varying local needs."

TOK

"To what extent do cultural perspectives and values influence our understanding and implementation of sustainable urban planning?"

Videos

When humans build a city, most species in the area tend to disappear. But there are some, called synurbic species, that are living their best lives in our concrete jungles.

By 2100, the UN estimates that the world's population will grow to just over 11 billion people. Architect Vishaan Chakrabarti wants us to start thinking about how we'll house all these people -- and how new construction can fight climate change rather than make it worse. In this visionary talk, Chakrabarti proposes a "Goldilocks" solution to sustainable housing that exists in the sweet spot between single-family homes and towering skyscrapers.

Why Singapore Is Insanely Well Designed

From towering skyscrapers covered in trees to zero carbon smart cities, there are so many ways to imagine what a sustainable city of the future might look like. But what does it really mean to be sustainable anyway? Today, we’re going to look at environmental planning and how it intersects with people and the communities they form.

In this whiteboard animation video, the author explain what we mean by circular economy, They go through all the things we can do to go from our current economy to a circular economy and use many examples.

Imagine a skyscraper with smart windows and walls made from fungus … yes, a fungus. Let’s explore green building and the future of construction. And can going net-zero really make a difference?

Who says a densely populated city can't be a green paradise? Not in Singapore! Shane Campbell-Staton visits visionary architect Pearl Chee and legendary urban planner Professor Cheong Koon Hean to find out how creators like them have woven nature into the fabric of the city. Green spaces aren't just an afterthought here - they're mandatory!

If we're going to solve the climate crisis, we need to talk about construction. The four main building materials that humans currently use -- concrete, steel, masonry and wood -- have a heavy environmental impact, but what if we had a fifth option?